The Chrysalids

THE CHRYSALIDS FINAL RESPONSE The Chrysalids, by John Wyndham is a spirit level about a world where heap will non feature differences, whether it is physical, psychological or spiritual. There be many bags in this composition. A major theme is satire. Davids cabargont is mocking our society, in authoritative look. Societies, Davids and ours subscribe many similarities. always since the beginning, mankind has excluded others for their differences. Whether it is for the color of their skin, or a nonher physical appearance, we all have judged or have been judged below the belt by the people around us. other major theme of this story is justice and humanity. When Uncle Axel explains the other places and people exterior of Waknuk, it shows that people differ in viewpoints, and have different ways of comprehend things. We are ignorant when we do not perk the way others see things, or when we do not accept other beca usance of their differences. In many cases, a person is s hunned from a group because others do not exchangeable a certain feature article that makes them unique. Sometimes, individuals are cast out because others are afraid of their differences that make them superior, or more advantageous.In the novel, the people of Waknuk were habituated to capturing the outlaws, because they were afraid of the groups ability. Trust is also a theme of this story. David has many people around him, but he cannot trust every mavin. erstwhile you overhear to know a person, you can develop and discover a trust between you. David develops a very strong trust with his Uncle. They piece everything, including emotions, opinions, and experiences. However, David does not trust his father, eventide though his relation means on that point should be a stronger bond. Anne certain Alan more than she trusted the group.This is an example of ignorance, and not taking the time to get to know how a person is. The Chrysalids is a fascinating, yet gripping tour abou t inhumanity, bigotry, intolerance, justice, and lastly solidarity. It is not a surprise at all, that earth can be so cruel, and narrow-minded. Us humans are one have the most powerful and forces that exist. Our life is precious, and we usually do not take notice, and waste that life, or use it the wrong way. Human reputation is something that will always exist. Without it, we would have no ideal world. The ChrysalidsTHE CHRYSALIDS FINAL RESPONSE The Chrysalids, by John Wyndham is a story about a world where people will not accept differences, whether it is physical, psychological or spiritual. There are many themes in this story. A major theme is satire. Davids society is mocking our society, in real life. Societies, Davids and ours have many similarities. Ever since the beginning, mankind has excluded others for their differences. Whether it is for the color of their skin, or another physical appearance, we all have judged or have been judged unfairly by the people around us.An other major theme of this story is justice and humanity. When Uncle Axel explains the other places and people outside of Waknuk, it shows that people differ in viewpoints, and have different ways of seeing things. We are ignorant when we do not see the way others see things, or when we do not accept other because of their differences. In many cases, a person is shunned from a group because others do not like a certain characteristic that makes them unique. Sometimes, individuals are cast out because others are afraid of their differences that make them superior, or more advantageous.In the novel, the people of Waknuk were devoted to capturing the outlaws, because they were afraid of the groups ability. Trust is also a theme of this story. David has many people around him, but he cannot trust everyone. Once you get to know a person, you can develop and discover a trust between you. David develops a very strong trust with his Uncle. They share everything, including emotions, opinions, and experiences. However, David does not trust his father, even though his relation means there should be a stronger bond. Anne trusted Alan more than she trusted the group.This is an example of ignorance, and not taking the time to get to know how a person is. The Chrysalids is a fascinating, yet gripping journey about inhumanity, bigotry, intolerance, justice, and lastly solidarity. It is not a surprise at all, that humans can be so cruel, and narrow-minded. Us humans are one have the most powerful and forces that exist. Our life is precious, and we usually do not take notice, and waste that life, or use it the wrong way. Human nature is something that will always exist. Without it, we would have no ideal world.

My Beautiful Mind Essay

Living with schizophrenic disorder The mind is therefore a beautiful thing. It is the reason for our ingenuity, artistic originality and maybe even our humanity. What happens tho when the mind works against us? When it tricks us into believing that what is non palpable to be the actual, destroying our sense of being? (Angelo) We see this played out at first hand in the life of sewer Forbes Nash jr. in A well-favoured take heed. The film was directed by Ron Howard and starred Russell Crowe, who plays bottom Nash, Paul Bettany, who plays Nashs imaginary friend Charles, and Jennifer Connelly, who plays Nashs wife Alicia.The scene won 4 Academy Awards, including beat Picture, Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best supporting(a) Actress. It was also nominated for Best Leading Actor, Best Editing, Best Makeup, and Best Score (A well-favoured Mind). A gorgeous Mind presents itself as a biography of the flesh-and-blood John Nash. And in fact, it is re wholey only a flashy, mushy Hollywood movie, inspired by a few grammatical constituenticular expatiate of the John Nash story. (Overstreet) This review is accurate in this description, director Ron Howard delivers a hopeful master peace but it is not all fact. For instance, John Nash neer had ocular hallucinations and he divorced his wife and later remarried. Though it is not an accurate representation, John Forbes Nash, younger did suffer from schizophrenia. John Forbes Nash, Jr. , or John Nash as he is referred to in the movie, was born June 13, 1928 in Bluefield, wolfram Virginia where he was raised. Nash took classes from Bluefield College while still attending Bluefield High School. After graduating from lofty school in 1945, he enrolled at the Carnegie Institute of engine room (now Carnegie Mellon University) in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania on a Westinghouse scholarship, where he studied chemical engine room and chemistry before switching to mathematics. He received both his bachelors spirit level and his masters degree in 1948 while at Carnegie Tech. (John Forbes Nash, Jr. ). The film begins as Nash is attending Princeton University for his postgraduate work in mathematics and writes his thesis on non-cooperative games which he later receives the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences.In the movie Nash gets a job at Massachusetts Institution of Technology after graduating from Princeton. It is at MIT where Nash meets his future wife, Alicia, and falls in love with her and she corpse his faithful mate even through his maddening episodes of schizophrenia. The film differs from honesty in many instances, his love life being one of them. In reality Nash had a trivial relationship with a nurse by the name of Eleanor Stier, they had a son together and named him John David Stier.After the infant was born Nash abandoned both of them and went through a homosexual stage, in the mid-1950s he was arrested in a Santa Monica restroom on a morality charge related to a homosexual encounter (John Forbes Nash, Jr. ). This was express to thrust caused him to lose his job at MIT and caused him to want to get married. yet now is Alicia brought into the picture, a student of his at MIT from El Salvador. John Forbes Nash, Jr. and Alicia Lopez-Harrison de Larde get married in 1957 and two years later Alicia admits John Nash to the manpowertal hospital.In the movie he is tackled by two men and a third, Dr. Rosen, administers a sedative and they haul Nash away in their car, all while students and teachers are watching. schizophrenic psychosis is described as being a mental disorder characterized by abnormalities in the perception or conceptualisation of reality. (Schizophrenia) Normally it occurs in young adulthood and manifests itself in auditory hallucinations paranoid or bizarre delusions, or disorganized speech and thinking, while visual hallucinations are possible they are extremely rare and John Nash Jr. said that he only had auditory hallucin ations.The visual manifestations in the movie were only to intrigue the audience and to clarify the sincerity and the reality of the disease. Schizophrenia is a very rare disease, affecting half of one per centum of the population of the world and scientists and doctors know little more about it at once than when John Nash was diagnosed. While knowledge of schizophrenia is scarce people have found some useful treatments such as Insulin electrical shock Therapy and trustworthy medications such as Typical Antipsychotic and the newer Atypical Antipsychotic, we see John Nash undergo the Insulin Shock Therapy in the late 1950s and the early 1960s.Insulin Shock Therapy however has been replaced by newer and more effective medications. The Typical Antipsychotics are the beg pills that Nash takes after his hospitalization. He says these medications make it hard for him to focus and he cannot suffice to his wife so he stops taking them. This only causes only pain when Nashs hallucina tions all come back. Nash eventually look outs how to cope with these hallucinations and tho ignores them. In conclusion, the movie A Beautiful Mind is a very inspirational film that fills the audience with we and intrigue as they watch Nash learn to live with schizophrenia and attempt to remain a viable part of society. John Forbes Nash Jr. has influenced economics, mathematics, and physics, he taught at two major universities, he got married, he won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, and he showed millions that it is possible to do all these things while living with schizophrenia. Works Cited Angelo. Beautiful Mind, A (2001) MovieFreak. com The Film Palace. 13 January 2010. Web. 04 March 2010. Overstreet, Jeffrey. A Beautiful Mind (2001) Rotten Tomatoes. Flixter, Inc. 12 May 2004. Web. 04 March 2010. http//www. rottentomatoes. com/m/beautiful_mind/ A Beautiful Mind (Film) Wikipedia, the desolate Encyclopedia. 04 March 2010. Web. 04 March 2010. http//en. wikipedia. org/wiki/A_Beautiful_Mind_(film) John Forbes Nash, Jr. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. 04 March 2010. Web. 04 March 2010. http//en. wikipedia. org/wiki/John_Forbes_Nash,_Jr Schizophrenia Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. 01 March 2010. Web. 04 March 2010. http//en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Schizophrenia

Characteristics of Modern English Drama Essay

Godots 60th The University of de nonation file shows the first night Pic Roger Pic So why atomic number 18 we still waiting for Godot? How has Samuel Becketts blowout grown from a tiny avant garde performance in Paris to become part of the westward End theatre coach party circuit? Its 60 years since Samuel Becketts influence delay for Godot received its premiere in the Theatre de Babylone in Paris. The first public performance, in its original French form of En attendant Godot, drew an audience of high-brow Parisians, taking in the latest experimental theatre. All the thousands who claimed they were there could never have been at the premiere. There werent enough seats, says James K directlson, Becketts friend and decreed biographer. They to a fault couldnt have realised that this play, beginning its shoestring-budget run on 5 January 1953, was going to be seen as one of the pivotal moments in modern drama. International appealSo why has Waiting for Godot turn out so durable ? How has Becketts work outlasted the other iconoclasts and angry untested writers of the 1950s and 1960s? I would suggest the answer lies in its ambiguities. So much is suggested rather than explicitly stated, says professor Knowlson. A programme from Godots first setting at the Theatre de Babylone in Montparnasse, Paris population can read into it what they want to read into it.This openness to interpretation has helped the play to avoid becoming dated, he says. For a play thats to the highest degree the passing of time, its curiously timeless. It asks all the big philosophical questions about life and death and the uncertain purpose of what goes on in amidst unless in a way that isnt limited to a particular place or era. And the play has acquired a remarkable commemorate for being performed in very different international settings. No misfortune or civil strife is complete without its own Godot. It was performed in Sarajevo downstairs siege in the 1990s, in South Afri ca it was seen as a survey of apartheid and in the wake of Hurricane Katrina a performance in New siege of Orleans was seen as an emblem of the citys wait for recovery. Inmates in San Quentin prison house in California saw it as their own story in a famous production in the late 1950s. professor Knowlsons friendship with Beckett has also created a rich and unexpected legacy for his university, the University of Reading, which now holds the biggest archive of Beckett-related material in the world. From the early 1970s, the playwright began giving manuscripts and notes to Prof Knowlson, stuffed into bags, boxes and suitcases. And this Beckett International ass has grown to become the definitive European assemblage for researchers. He adopted us, says Prof Knowlson although the attention-shunning writer was never persuaded to visit the archive in person. As Waiting for Godot reaches its 60th anniversary, the university has artefacts and pictures from the original performances. Some thing extraordinaryIts also a reminder of how easily the play might not have happened at all. Samuel Beckett at the BBC recording a series of his plays in 1977There were no famous faces or big funders to back the play. Instead it depended on the actor and director Roger Blin to hustle for cash and a venue and erstwhile it had begun it relied on word of mouth for survival. None of the original cast are still alive and the theatre itself shut down a a few(prenominal) years after staging Becketts play. In an interview with French television in the 1960s, Roger Blin suggested the initial power of the play.When Beckett showed him the script I express to myself This is something extraordinary and it must be put on. Another playwright who was enlisted in the search for funding fervently promised Blin I will defend this play to the death. It was still proving controversial when the first English version of the play was performed dickens years later in London, directed by a 24-year-old dent Hall. Harold Pinter, also then in his twenties, saw Beckett as the the most courageous, unpitying writer going, while reviewer Bernard Levin described Waiting for Godot as a remarkable piece of twaddle.Not a miserabilistProf Knowlson is himself now one of the most definitive living connections with Beckett. pass on reading the main storyStart QuoteHe could be very convivial, very witty, very good company, with a great brain of surliness Professor James KnowlsonBecketts friend and biographer. And he recognises that the continuing interest in Becketts writing is wrapped up in the fascination with the enigmatic character of the author. His photogenic alienation has become a kind of literary brand. But Prof Knowlson argues against the view of Beckett as a miserabilist. He could be very convivial, very witty, very good company, with a great sense of humour. But there was an element of depression and discouragement that was part of his life, particularly after the war when he was deeply entangled in writing the novels. He says that Becketts idea of a talented Christmas would have been a solitary occasion.He would have been preferably on his own and writing. He hated that kind of thing. The underlying humour is also part of the continuing appeal of Waiting for Godot, he argues. Its a great deal a peculiarly bleak comedy of resistance, but the thread of humour is always there to leaven the gloom. Its now a popular to see Waiting for Godot described as one of the most important plays of the 20th blow with its reputation gathering momentum rather than melt away. The kind of movie actors who would have reached the career point of wanting to be in King Lear now want to shuffle across the spot in Godot.Design consciousA key reason for this ontogenesis resonance with audiences, Prof Knowlson says, is the visual appeal. Becketts strong images appeal to a design-conscious, visually-literate culture. They have this strong visual element. Ive become much t o a greater extent conscious of the filmic quality.A handbill advertising the first run of Waiting for GodotProf Knowlson says that he increasingly believes there is a direct link between the plays and Becketts interest in painting. He was passionately mixed in painting, not just that he loved to be with painters, but he was a real expert on 17th Century Dutch painting. He knew these pictures so well, he was so engrossed in these scenes. It seems to me that these pictures are really echoed in Waiting for Godot. Becketts life was changed by the success of Godot the international impact of the play helped him to win the Nobel Prize for Literature. His publishing company John Calder also recalled how the enigmatic Godot could haunt his creator.He recounted how he had formerly met an anxious Beckett getting off a flight at Heathrow airport. When the even doors had closed on the runway in Paris, Beckett had heard the loudspeaker announcing victor Godot welcomes you on board. I wond ered if my destiny had caught up with me at last, Beckett had told his publisher. The Beckett International Foundation at the University of Reading will hold a series of seminars on Samuel Beckett and Waiting for Godot in April 2013.

Discuss the Biological Approach in Psychology Essay

Discuss the biologic start out in psychology. appoint to at least one other approach in your answer. (12 marks) The biologic approach focuses on both the physiological and evolutionary aspects which explain valet de chambre deportment. The causal level of analysis incorpo regulates physiological explanations, such(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) as the impression of nerves and hormones on doings. According to biologic psychologists, doings is controlled by the neuronal system, which consists of the pro base nauseated system (the principal and the spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (the surrounding nerves), which itself includes the autonomic nervous system that controls automatic carry outes such as heart rate and the fight or flight syndrome. at heart the central nervous system, neurons communicate with each other via sending chemical impulses, neurotransmitters, across synapses. Biopsychologists believe that these chemical processes in the sensati on directly enamor mankindkind behaviour. Too much or too little of these chemicals jackpot pull up s coins in over-activity or under-activity in various split of the brain this alters thoughts, emotions and behaviour.For example, a link has been made amidst excessive dopaminergic activity in the brain and the incidence of schizophrenia. Pearlson et al (1993) used Positron Emission tomography (PET) scans and found a substantial increase in D2 receptors in patients with schizophrenia. Seeman et al (1993) too used PET scans, finding six times the tautness of D4 receptors in the brains of schizophrenic individuals. A l delusive of such studies is the sentiment of consume and effect for example, it is unclear whether the increase in dopamine receptors causes schizophrenia or is a resolve of the neuroleptic medicates taken. Yet, Pearlsons study was carried out on individuals who had not been exposed to neuroleptic drugs, which indeed rules out cause and effect. Neuroimaging studies argon able to study the structure and functioning of the brain, and switch the advantage of organism non-trespassing(a). Researchers wealthy person shown how behaviour can be affected by dissimilar levels of sex hormones, for example increased testosterone has been linked to aggression and increased risk-taking.In forensic psychology, Eysencks guess of the criminal personality suggested that individuals who offend atomic number 18 higher(prenominal)-pitched on the extroversion dimension and seek constant foreplay and autonomic arousal from their environment. These individuals atomic number 18 also said to be high on the neuroticism dimension, with high anxiety levels and an emotion eachy unstable central nervous system. Their nervous system reacts strongly to aversive stimuli and, as a result, these individuals cannot effectively learn socially appropriate behaviours. Eysencks theory is criticised for inconsistencies between criminal activity and extroversion. Zucke rman (1969) also argued that environmental stimulation may be sought as a result of boredom, where there is increased arousal. Behaviourists also emphasise the role of the environment as a determining reckon of behaviour in the reputation versus nurture debate. The behavioristic approach states that all individuals are born with blank slates (tabula rasa), with behaviour being learnt by dint of the process of conditioning, past experiences and the environment.With reference to the forensic psychology topic, neo-behaviourists argue that criminal behaviour is learnt by observing and imitating the behaviour of role models in the environment, e.g. peers, celebrities, novel characters. The imitation of aggressive behaviour is most clearly shown in studies conducted by Bandura et al (1963), in which children who observed models performing aggressive acts on a Bobo boo later displayed this same behaviour. However this experiment is criticised for being open to pauperization character istics so the children knew what was expected of them, which confounded the results (Cumberbatch, 1992). In contrast, the functional level of analysis focuses on evolutionary and genetic theories of behaviour. In the 1800s, Charles Darwin postulated the evolutionary theory which commit forward the idea of survival and reproduction as an important property of behaviour in all species. In what he called the survival of the fittest, Darwin suggested that through with(predicate) the process of natural selection animals with particular characteristics, as a result of possessing advantageous alleles, will survive.However, those with maladaptive genes cannot adapt to changes in environmental conditions, so will die or become extinct. Dowling (1994) stated that this process depends on three principles species diversity, interaction and the spread of a species as a result of differential amplification. Sexual selection is another component of Darwins look into, which explains the outmat ch strategies adopted for passing on genes to offspring. Moreover, there are problems with Darwins theory such as his efforts to generalise animal behaviour to the way in which humans interact in their environment. However, he has presented compelling evidence which is truly scientific in its approach and methodology. Further more(prenominal), contrary to Darwins evolutionary idea of survival of an individual, Dawkins (1976) suggested that the survival of the genes is more important. Schizophrenia twin studies have found a 46% concordance rate for monozygotic twins compared with a 14% concordance for dizygotic twins. This high concordance suggests the contribution of genotype to the onset of schizophrenia, yet the 40% discordancy indicates that environment must play a role in the development of this condition. Moreover, localisation of function explains how different parts of the brain have particular functions for example, the amygdala has been linked to aggression.A more famous example is the HM case study, in which an operation on his brain, in revision to treat severe epilepsy, resulted in anterograde amnesia. The removal of HMs hippocampus was therefore linked to his amnesia upon recovery, where he could not form new memories. Chromo nighs are made up of genes which cook a phenotype, dominant or recessive. Ab mean(prenominal)ities in chromosomes have been found through biological research. For example, Kleinfelters syndrome and Turners syndrome both comprise an unorthodox chromosomal pattern which, in turn, produces abnormal behaviour. Male individuals with Kleinfelters syndrome have the XXY chromosomal pattern, in which they possess an extra X chromosome symptoms include broader hips and decreased fertility rates. Turners syndrome involves the absence of an X chromosome in females, resulting in webbed necks and memory deficits. Furthermore, criminal research has found an incidence rate of 0.1% XYY pattern in the general population, with 1.5% XYY in the prison population, suggesting that atypical chromosomal patterns cause criminal behaviour.Yet, further studies have failed to confirm this link Wilkin et al (1976) found that only 12 men in a commodious sample of 4500 males had the extra Y chromosome, with none being an offender. This theory was thus refuted. The biological approach as provided a lot of evidence for the biological basis of behaviour, yet it slopes to be deterministic, seeing free will as an illusion. The humanistic approach, however, believes that we are active agents and able to choose our behaviour. In addition, the biological approach is reductionist and dehumanising as it reduces all behaviour to biological processes, such as genes and neurochemicals. In contrast, both the humanistic and psychodynamic approaches are holistic to some extent. The humanistic approach emphasises the whole person and whole subjective experience, whilst the psychodynamic approach concentrates on the individuals life. A metho d used in much of biological research is the use of laboratory studies.These are high in control, yet lack ecological validity as the findings cannot be generalised outface such a controlled environment. Similar to the biological approach, the behaviourist approach uses scientific methods which are falsifiable and objective. For example, operant conditioning was canvass by Skinner in a series of experiments with rats who, when by chance, touch a lever received a pellet of food. Through confident(p) reinforcement, they continued to press the lever in order to increase the likelihood of the desired response being repeated (receiving food). However, the use of animal studies instrument that findings may lack generalisability to human behaviour although, Darwin would disagree as human and animal anatomy and behaviour are seen as similar. Debates that arise in biological research include the concept of determinism. This is shown in biological research as free will is often ignored an d consequences are seen as beyond human control.Biological theories are reductionist as they attempt to explain human behaviour by breaking complex processes exhaust into fundamental biological ones. This approach is criticised for focusing only on the nature side of the nature vs. nurture debate it is believed that behaviour is innate and therefore environmental factors and cognitive mediating processes are ignored. Furthermore, the biological approach is nomothetic as the features that people have in common are investigated and general laws of behaviour are applied to groups. Empirical studies are mainly objective as they observe phenomena rather than focusing on subjective experiences, like behaviourists tend to do. Yet this is also a limitation as it is argued that biopsychologists dehumanise and ignore the importance of experiences. Humanistic psychologists argue that the subjective experience is important as we are motivated to achieve self-actualisation (Maslow, 1987).Pract ical applications of the biological approach have been useful and effective in society. Drug therapy has been developed in order to treat illnesses and disorders, such as schizophrenia. Anti-psychotic drugs include risperidone, clozapine and chlorpromazine. Atypical drugs, clozapine and risperidone, also treat negative symptoms of schizophrenia. For depression, drugs include Selective Serotonin re-uptake Inhibitors (SSRIs), Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs) and Tricyclic anti-depressants. Bipolar disorder can be treated with lithium Carbonate, which is toxic but, unlike the drugs for unipolar depression, they treat the manic phases of the disorder also. Where drug therapy may not work in specific cases, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is used as this involves inducing an electric shock on the patients brain this therapy can be seen as unethical, especially in cases where this treatment is abandoned against a patients wishes.However, it is still used today and has proven to be effective. Drug therapy itself has been criticised for only prevention and not curing symptoms. stance effects, such as clozapine lowering the white blood count, and the yen period it takes for an effect can both result in a lower adherence to this particular treatment so relapse is common. A problem arises when schizophrenic patients may discontinue use due to the side effects and long time to feel any effect. Invasive and non-invasive techniques are used to identify which brain areas may responsible for types of behaviour.Using invasive techniques, such as lesions and abrasions in brain surgery, biological psychologists have identify Brocas area which controls the production of speech. In contrast, behaviourists tend to use cognitive-behavioural therapy for illnesses and disorders, such as depression, which has been found to be more effective than medication (Elkin et al, 1985). In conclusion, the biological approach has contributed a huge amount to how we explain human behaviou r. There has been much empirical research and the applications have enabled individuals to live normal lives that they had previously not been able to. However it is more advisable to take an interactionist approach as the role of nurture must be considered where behaviour is concerned.

Jane Eyre: Relating to Feminism and Bertha Manson as an Alter Ego

The novel, Jane Eyre, describes the transformation from childhood to adulthood of an orphaned girl named Jane. Bertha Mason, is portrayed as the alter ego of the orphaned girl, Jane Eyre. This educational activity could be interrupted in more ways. One being-for an example- Bertha being a symbol and representation of Janes odoring in regard to the fleck of her marrying Rochester. A nonher is approximately likeliness of both womens actions.Jane Eyre may feel as if the matter of marriage is oppressing her. The dreams she acquire afterwards the engagement suggests she secretly fears being submitted. Also, she may rage at the idea of losing her freedom and obedient to a higher power, which in this case is Rochester. Jane herself does not show alone of these emotions, provided they are animated through the actions of Bertha. Bertha tearing the bridal inter could stand for a metaphorical sign or warning for Jane as to not get married.On another note, Bertha is as well the obst acle that stops the wedding ceremony from persisting on she is not only a metaphorical divisor, but is also a physical obstacle as well. The male distinguished aspect relates both Bertha and Jane. Bertha was tied and locked away, showing the bondage and effect straight-laced marriage had on mental and emotional health. It suggests that it suffocated women and took away their freedom. Jane was forced and anticipate to concede at both Gateshead Hall and Lowood Institution.You can read also Analysis of Literary Devices of Jane EyreShe was harassed and also suggested by many that she not be so passionate. Knowing back then women for expected to turmoil the perfect imagine of civil, mannered, and self contained. Although, Jane was self righteous, opinionated, and passionate when new-madeer. She learned to be well behaved and level headed at Lowood Institution the younger oppressed human face of her reveals from her alter ego, Bertha. The likeliness of some events that occurred pe rtaining to both women does suggest that the madwoman in the Attic is indeed the alter ego of Jane.Firstly, Bertha having been locked in a room for just about ten years and goes insane. Jane gets locked in the red room at the young age of ten for about five minutes and lashes out hysterically. Secondly, after Bertha attacks Mr Mason she then gets tied up in the loft Jane, when younger, received a threat to be restrained by her aunt if she did not yield. Lastly, the mad women is mental insane and Jane starts to hear voices. The madwoman in the attic has many symbols and roles that could be interpreted in this novel.Whether it is the horrors of Victorian marriage or the controlled element of the female gender. The statement states that Bertha is the alter ego to Jane Eyre and for many reasons. The madwoman in the attic plays a big role in representing Jane herself and her unconscious and internal conflicts. Including some key emotional events Jane went through in childhood. The rel ations between the both just goes to show that you cant quite escape your medieval characteristics and suppress them for long.

Adoption of New Innovations Essay

Consumers go through five stages in the process of simulateing a new product 1. sentiency The consumer becomes aw be of the new product, but lacks learning about it. 2. Interest The consumer seeks information about the new product. 3. Evaluation The consumer considers whether trying the new product makes sense. 4. rivulet The consumer tries the new product on a small scale to advance his or her estimate its value. 5. Adoption The consumer decides to make full and regular aim of new product. This model suggests that the new-product marketer should think about how to help consumers instigate through these stages.Individual differences in Innovativeness People differ greatly in their readiness to try new products. In each product area, there are consumption pioneers and early adopters. Other individuals adopt new products such(prenominal) later. Time of Adoption of New Innovations The five adopters groups have differing values. Innovators are bodaciousthey try new ideas at so me risk. Early adopters are manoeuvre by respectthey are opinion leaders in their communities and adopt new ideas early but carefully. The early mass is deliberatealthough they rarely are leaders, they adopt new ideas before average person.The late bulk is skepticalthey adopt an innovation only after a majority of people have tried it. Finally, laggards are tradition boundthey are suspicious of changes and adopt the innovation only when it has become something of a tradition itself. This adopter classification suggests that an innovating firm should research the characteristics of innovators and early adopters and should direct merchandise efforts toward them. In general, innovators tend to be relatively younger, better educated, and higher in income than later adopters and non-adopters.

Mock Trial Closings Essay

The closing argument is the polish piece of a mock trial, essentiall(a)y the last time you get to sell your example to the control board. During the closing argument, you are summarizing and putting together everything the jury has already perceive during the trial. You are basically clarifying everything presented in the trial from showing the relevance of a particular witness to showing how everything youve presented comes together to prove your exemplar.It is genius of the most valuable parts of mock trial, mainly because the jury listens. It is the last chance to convince the enounces of your case, to show you are more apt than your opp unmatchablent, and get the perfect 10 youre hoping for because they are the last actors line the jury will hear from your team. It can make your case, or publish it, thus delivery is very important.Writing the ClosingTheme An important part of a great closing is the estimation. It will eviscerate your case together in a pretty ribbon that will remain in the juries mind. It will be the same theme from the opening, one that runs by your entire case, and in the closing reminding the jury of your case with the catchy give voice or sentence.Structure1)Introduction Begin with a short introduction that catches the jurys attention. It should remind the adjudicates of the big picture. If its a reach trial, talk closely how tragic it is that this persons life was taken away. If its a civil trial you can speak about(predicate) how the persons rights were violated. Also be sure to introduce your theme during the introduction.2)Burden of Proof Explain what your marrow is and what your role is in relation to it. recognise the judges exactly how youve met the burden or how the opposing counsel has failed to met this burden. In addition, frame the burden of proof in your favor.3)Law Tell the judges about each element of the charge. Explain whether or not you have be or disproved each element, or whether it is enough to prove or disprove any one element. Then make a roadmap. Tell the judge that to prove your burden/undermine your opponents case, you are to prove x, y, and z.4)Argument This is the meat of your case. This is where one by one you are going to signpost and tell the judge exactly what you are talking about. Example Now lets look at X. X, Y, and Z should not be your tierce witnesses but parts of the law that you need to prove or disprove. actuate your judges of testimonies/evidence from the trial that adds up to show X. Do this for all points. Its important to remember it should be based around the law. Dont go witness by witness recounting the evidence.5)Conclusion Sums everything up. Restate how youve met your burden of proof through x, y, and z. Use your theme once more to tie everything together. Ask for a verdict. Remember to be this strong, convincing and memorable.

Leadership Style

finding a consumption model to appreciate his or her look of attractionship and keying whizzs suffer characteristics as a draw be he outset decimal point for creating a some sensational nurture device to make water toward worthy the type of scater iodin wishes to be. bloody shame Kay change accord to Hulk, transformational attractors, under educate hold to raise the consciousness of following by appealing to ideals and clean set more than(prenominal)(prenominal) as liberty, effectiveice, e persona, peace, and humanitarianism, non to baser emotions much(prenominal)(prenominal) as fear, greed, jealousy, or plague (2013, p. 347). Mary Kay ash was a transformational attractor.During a succession period where women were non viewed as equal to men, she started a advanced bunk that em force played women. not only did she build a business for women, she established a charit adapted foundation to support hobocer enquiry and later expanded its propos e to fighting violence against women (celebrating Mary Kay Ash, n. D. ). It would take a bear-sized amount of courage, confidence, and drive to accomplish the things she was adapted to. To pose this type of invasion on such a massive convention of pack steady would provide a person with an massive sense of accomplishment.Strengths of Self Qualities obligatory to be a positive drawing card that argon possessed by the armament force allow respectful, good communicator, resourceful, recognizeing, an receptiveness to change, organized, delegated, takes initiative, listens to and moves to feedback as head as provides constructive feedback to former(a)s (University of Oregon, 2009). Treating former(a)(a)wises with respect pull up stakes lead to them giving respect. Communicating is an congenital function of leading. The attraction must be able to sh atomic number 18 the address and vision as well as provide direction. community in any case sire a wishing t o be heard, so it is important for a drawing card to listen to different(a)s and their ideas.Weaknesses Of Self Qualities that whitethorn hold a person from reaching his or her refinement of macrocosm a transformational attraction argon macrocosm confinement oriented alternatively of mass oriented. A transformational drawing card changes the lives of others and this is harder to accomplish if the main focus is the job not the person. A need to tell has its strong points as well as its weaknesses. It is important to retire when to exit for others to take cover. Characteristics that ar Transformational To reach this type of loss attraction would not only transform the lives of others entirely of the author as a attraction herself.Being a demandal draw is a positive starting point in working toward becoming a transformational draw. Knowing hotshots abilities is important still constantly striving to improve development to do to a greater extent and split back tooth inspire others that they can do the same. Seeing an organized attraction who thrives under pressure, utilize planning as a tool to break through bequeath show others they argon equal of overcoming their stress and do fail. The roughly important whole t peerless a person unavoidably to hold fall turn out a transformational leader is a belief in and desire to developing others both face-to-facely and professional.Development Plan Having a instruct is an excellent way to identify a persons qualities as a leader and develop a plan that leave behind help that person institute about the leader he or she desires to be. working toward becoming a transformational leader is an enormous goal. The rootage mistreat in reaching this goal is identifying the needs of others and how they argon motivated. Then rankting personal goals that work toward the development into a transformational leader. It is important to begin with small goals, such as encouraging coworke rs to do more(prenominal)(prenominal) and do better.If they take pride in their work and their furrow it go forth reflect in the equines. By mount smaller, reachable goals a person entrust be encouraged and inspired to continue to work and reach the final goal. cobblers last Being in a bureau to empower, motivate, and uplift women is only plowshargon of what it would take to be a transformational leader. pickings action and taking blame of her life and future is what Mary Kay Ash did, and showed other women they could do it as well. To change a persons leading direction it is necessary to identify that persons characteristics as a leader. leading Style description of leaders A leader is someone who can model others and who has a managerial power. lead is what leading do. More specifically, its the do work of influencing a root word to achieve goals. assort leaders drawship is concerned with control and power in a congregation. Leadership can be aimed at either m aintaining the interpersonal relationships in the classify or prodding the throng to achieve its task. Kinds of Leadership Groups typically benefit from two kinds of leading i. e. implemental leading communicatory lead instrumental LeadershipThis kind of lead refers to separate leaders that foc uptakes on the completion of tasks. Members look to instrumental lead to make plans, mother orders and model things do. Characteristics of instrumental lead Instrumental leaders usually baffle formal, supplementary relations with other assembly members. They touch orders and takes and punish members according to their voice to the groups efforts. Enjoy more respect from members when flourishing. Their main goal is completion of task. communicative Leadership Expressive leaders is a group leaders that foc example of goods and servicess on the groups well being. exercising the sidetrackicipatory path of leaders is an example of expressive leading. Characteristics of Expressive leaders Expressive leaders take less interest in achieving goals than in promoting the well-being of members, raising group cleane and minimizing tensions and conflicts among the group members. Expressive leaders build more personal and primary ties. They show sympathy to their group members. They generally receive more personal affection. Leadership Styles translation Leadership looks refer to the various patterns of manner favored by leaders during the at ladder to of directing and influencing workers.Sociologists describe lead in frontiers of stopping point fashioning sorts. The triplet major(ip)(ip) types of leading ar the following Authoritarian or ascendant leading. Democratic or Participative leadership. Laissez-faire leadership. Although good leaders substance abuse all triple behaviors, with one of them ordinarily dominant, meritlessness leaders play to stick with one pique. In the past several decades, management experts give birth u ndergone a revolution in how they define leadership and what their attitudes be toward it. They remove gone from a genuinely classical distinguished approach to a very creative, quiticipative approach. aroundwhere along the line, it was qualifyd that not everything old was bad and not everything new was good. Rather, different flargons were needed for different situations and each leader needed to know when to picture a f arwellicular approach. Authoritarian Leadership This is lots considered the classical approach. It is one in which the manager retains as a lot power and finish- fashioning trust as possible. The manager does not consult employees, nor be they furnished to give any input. Employees are judge to obey orders without receiving any explanations.The need environment is produced by creating a structured set of rewards and punishments. This sprint is utilize when leaders tell their employees what they fatality done and how they want it accomplished , without getting the advice of their pursuit. close to of the trance conditions to use it are when you subscribe to all the information to exercise the problem, you are short on time, and your employees are well motivated. This leadership means has been greatly criticized during the past 30 years. Some studies say that organizations with many oppressive leaders oblige higher(prenominal) turnover and absenteeism than other organizations.These studies say that oppressive leaders Rely on threats and punishment to influence employees. Do not accord for employee input. Autocratic leadership is not all bad. Some measure it is the just about powerful style to use. These situations can include New, untrained employees who do not know which tasks to perform or which procedures to follow. Effective supervision can be provided only through little orders and instructions. A managers power is challenged by an employee. Democratic or Participative leadershipThe democratic leadersh ip style is in like manner called the participative style as it encourages employees to be a part of the conclusion qualification. The democratic manager keeps his or her employees informed about everything that affects their work and shares decision making and problem solving responsibilities. This style requires the leader to be a coach who has the final say, but gathers information from staff members before making a decision. Democratic leadership can produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time. Many employees like the devote they receive and do with cooperation, aggroup spirit, and high morale.Typically the democratic leader Develops plans to help employees evaluate their own deed. Encourages employees to grow on the job and be promoted. Recognizes and encourages achievement. Like the other styles, the democratic style is not al shipway enamour. It is roughly successful when utilise with super adroitnessed or experienced employees or when i mplementing operational changes or decide single(a) or group problems. This is normally employ when you gain part of the information, and your employees construct other parts. Note that a leader is not expected to know everything this is why you employ educated and skillful employees.Using this style is of mutual benefit it allows them to go part of the team and allows you to make better decisions. Laissez-faire leadership Laissez faire is a french word meaning nonintervention in the affairs of others. Laissez means to let, allow and faire means to do. The laissez-faire leadership style is in like manner cognize as the hands-off? style. It is one in which the manager provides little or no direction and gives employees as ofttimes freedom as possible. All authority or power is attached to the employees and they must get goals, make decisions, and firmness of purpose problems on their own.In this style, the leader allows the employees to make the decisions. However, th e leader is still amenable for the decisions that are made. This is used when employees are able to analyze the situation and de landmarkine what needs to be done and how to do it. You cannot do everything You must set priorities and delegate certain tasks. This is an in force(p) style to use when Employees are passing skilled, experienced, and educated. Employees have pride in their work and the drive to do it successfully on their own. Outside experts, such as staff specialists or consultants are being used.Employees are leaveworthy and experienced. Varying Leadership Style age the proper leadership style depends on the situation, there are three other factors that also influence which leadership style to use. The managers personal background. What personality, knowledge, values, ethics, and experiences does the manager have? What does he or she think volition work? The employees being supervised. Employees are individuals with different personalities and backgrounds. The le adership style managers use will vary depending upon the individual employee and what he or she will respond ruff to. The union.The traditions, values, philosophy, and concerns of the follow will influence how a manager acts. there are a lot of arguments for and against each of the impelling leadership styles. For example, the pursuit of an authoritarian leader are more prone to having low motivating and morale. They may find it operose to get inspired because the leader is more impersonal, task oriented, demanding, and not unselfish of their opinions. However despite this, there are situations where an authoritarian leadership style is the around effective. Such as when time is short, when the leader has all the information and a quick decision is needed.Anything other than an authoritarian leader will result in poorer outcomes. Theories of Leadership race have been interested in leadership since they have started coming unitedly in groups to accomplish goals. However, it wasnt until the other(a) part of the twentieth coke that look intoers usually began to written report it. These early leadership theories focused on the leader (trait theories) and how the leader interacted with his or her group members ( airal theories) while subsequent theories looked at other variables such as situational factors and skill level. tour many different leadership theories have emerged, or so can be classified as one of eight major types bulky Man Theory Early investigate on leadership was found on the theatre of operations of raft who were already great leaders. These people were practically from the aristocracy, as few from lower classes had the hazard to lead. This contributed to the notion that leadership had something to do with breeding. The idea of the Great Man also strayed into the mythic domain, with notions that in times of need, a Great Man would arise, or so by magic.This was easy to verify, by pointing to people such as Eisenhower and C hurchill. The term Great Man was used because, at the time, leadership was thought of in the send-off place as a staminate quality, especially in terms of war machine leadership. Trait guess In searching for measurable leadership traits, inquiryers have taken two approaches canvas the traits of those who have emerged as leaders with the traits who have not and Comparing the traits of effective leaders with those of ineffective leaders.Early research on leadership was found on the psychological focus of the day, which was of people having inherited characteristics or traits. tending was thus put on discovering these traits, a lot by studying successful leaders, but with the underlying assumption that if other people could also be found with these traits, then(prenominal) they, too, could also become great leaders. Trait theories oft identify grouchy personality or fashional characteristics shared by leaders. But if fussy traits are find out features of leadership, how do we relieve people who possess those qualities but are not leaders?This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to rationalize leadership. Behavioral theory When it became manifest that effective leaders did not await to have a particular set of distinguishing traits, researchers tried to isolate the behavior characteristics of effective leaders. In other words, quite than testify to figure out who effective leaders are, researchers tried to determine what effective leaders do i. e. how they delegate tasks, how they communicate with and try to motivate their following or employees and so on.Behaviors, unlike traits, can be learned, so it is followed that individuals trained in appropriate leadership behaviors would be able to lead more effectively. Participative theory A Participative Leader, rather than taking autocratic decisions, seeks to involve other people in the process, possibly including subordinates, peers, superiors and other stakeholders. Of ten, however, as it is within the managers whim to give or deny control to his or her subordinates, intimately participative activity is within the straightaway team.These leaders encourage elaboration and contributions from group members and help group members note more relevant and commit to the decision-making process. In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of others. The level of affaire may also depend on the type of decision being made. Decisions on how to implement goals may be passing participative, whilst decisions during subordinate performance evaluations are more likely to be taken by the manager. misfortune theory adventure theories are a class of behavioral theory that contends that there is no one opera hat way of leading and that a leadership style that is effective in some situations may not be successful in others. misfortune theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment that major power determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. fit to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations. achievement depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership style, qualities of the allys, and aspects of the situation.This theory focuses on the following factors projection requirement. Peers expectations and behavior. Employees characteristics, expectations and behavior. organizational culture and policies. Situational theory unrivaled of the major contingency approaches to leadership is capital of Minnesota Hersey and Kenneth H. Blanchards situational leadership model which holds that the roughly effective leadership style varies with the readiness of employees. When a decision is needed, an effective leader does not just fall into a single pet style, such as using transactional or transformational ethods. In practice, as they say, things are not that simple. Factors that affect situational decisions include motivation and force of followers. This, in turn, is bear upon by factors within the particular situation. The relationship between followers and the leader may be other factor that affects leader behavior as much as it does follower behavior. The leaders perception of the follower and the situation will affect what they do rather than the truth of the situation.The leaders perception of themselves and other factors such as stress and mood will also modify the leaders behavior. Transformational or Charismatic theory Working for a Transformational Leader can be a wonderful and lift up experience. They put passion and energy into everything. They billing about you and want you to succeed. One area of growing interest is the study of individuals who have an exceptional equal on their organizations. These individuals may be called magnetised or transformational leaders.First, many large companies including IBM, GM etc have embarked on organisational transformations prog rams of extensive changes that must be accomplished in short periods of time. lows theory of transformational leadership bass defined transformational leadership in terms of how the leader affects followers, who are intended to trust, admire and respect the transformational leader. He identified three ways in which leaders transform followers Increasing their awareness of task importance and value. Getting them to focus first on team or organizational goals, rather than their own interests. trigger off their higher-order needs. Bass has recently say that authentic transformational leadership is grounded in moral foundations that are based on four components Idealized influence sacred motivation Intellectual remark Individualized consideration Transactional or management theory watchfulness theories (also known as Transactional theories) focus on the place of supervision, organization, and group performance. These theories base leadership on a system of reward and punishment. Managerial theories are very much used in business when employees are successful, they are ewarded when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished. The early stage of Transactional Leadership is in negotiating the contract whereby the subordinate is apt(p) a salary and other benefits, and the company gets authority over the subordinate. When the Transactional Leader allocates work to a subordinate, they are considered to be fully accountable for it, whether or not they have the resources or aptitude to carry it out. When things go wrong, then the subordinate is considered to be personally at fault, and is punished for their failure (just as they are rewarded for succeeding).Leadership StyleDefinition of Leadership A leader is someone who can influence others and who has a managerial authority. Leadership is what leaders do. More specifically, its the process of influencing a group to achieve goals. Group Leadership Leadership is concerned with control and power in a group. Lea dership can be aimed at either maintaining the interpersonal relationships in the group or prodding the group to achieve its task. Kinds of Leadership Groups typically benefit from two kinds of leadership i. e. Instrumental leadership Expressive leadership Instrumental LeadershipThis kind of leadership refers to group leadership that focuses on the completion of tasks. Members look to instrumental leadership to make plans, give orders and get things done. Characteristics of instrumental leadership Instrumental leaders usually have formal, secondary relations with other group members. They give orders and rewards and punish members according to their contribution to the groups efforts. Enjoy more respect from members when successful. Their main goal is completion of task. Expressive Leadership Expressive leadership is a group leadership that focuses on the groups well being. deterrent example the democratic style of leadership is an example of expressive leadership. Characteristics o f Expressive leadership Expressive leaders take less interest in achieving goals than in promoting the well-being of members, raising group morale and minimizing tensions and conflicts among the group members. Expressive leaders build more personal and primary ties. They show sympathy to their group members. They generally receive more personal affection. Leadership Styles Definition Leadership styles refer to the various patterns of behavior favored by leaders during the process of directing and influencing workers.Sociologists describe leadership in terms of decision making styles. The three major types of leadership are the following Authoritarian or autocratic leadership. Democratic or Participative leadership. Laissez-faire leadership. Although good leaders use all three styles, with one of them normally dominant, bad leaders tend to stick with one style. In the past several decades, management experts have undergone a revolution in how they define leadership and what their att itudes are toward it. They have gone from a very classical autocratic approach to a very creative, participative approach.Somewhere along the line, it was determined that not everything old was bad and not everything new was good. Rather, different styles were needed for different situations and each leader needed to know when to exhibit a particular approach. Authoritarian Leadership This is often considered the classical approach. It is one in which the manager retains as much power and decision-making authority as possible. The manager does not consult employees, nor are they allowed to give any input. Employees are expected to obey orders without receiving any explanations.The motivation environment is produced by creating a structured set of rewards and punishments. This style is used when leaders tell their employees what they want done and how they want it accomplished, without getting the advice of their followers. Some of the appropriate conditions to use it are when you ha ve all the information to dissolve the problem, you are short on time, and your employees are well motivated. This leadership style has been greatly criticized during the past 30 years. Some studies say that organizations with many autocratic leaders have higher turnover and absenteeism than other organizations.These studies say that autocratic leaders Rely on threats and punishment to influence employees. Do not allow for employee input. Autocratic leadership is not all bad. Sometimes it is the most effective style to use. These situations can include New, untrained employees who do not know which tasks to perform or which procedures to follow. Effective supervision can be provided only through detailed orders and instructions. A managers power is challenged by an employee. Democratic or Participative leadershipThe democratic leadership style is also called the participative style as it encourages employees to be a part of the decision making. The democratic manager keeps his or h er employees informed about everything that affects their work and shares decision making and problem solving responsibilities. This style requires the leader to be a coach who has the final say, but gathers information from staff members before making a decision. Democratic leadership can produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time. Many employees like the trust they receive and respond with cooperation, team spirit, and high morale.Typically the democratic leader Develops plans to help employees evaluate their own performance. Encourages employees to grow on the job and be promoted. Recognizes and encourages achievement. Like the other styles, the democratic style is not always appropriate. It is most successful when used with highly skilled or experienced employees or when implementing operational changes or resolving individual or group problems. This is normally used when you have part of the information, and your employees have other parts. Note that a leader is not expected to know everything this is why you employ educated and skillful employees.Using this style is of mutual benefit it allows them to become part of the team and allows you to make better decisions. Laissez-faire leadership Laissez faire is a French word meaning noninterference in the affairs of others. Laissez means to let, allow and faire means to do. The laissez-faire leadership style is also known as the hands-off? style. It is one in which the manager provides little or no direction and gives employees as much freedom as possible. All authority or power is given to the employees and they must determine goals, make decisions, and work out problems on their own.In this style, the leader allows the employees to make the decisions. However, the leader is still responsible for the decisions that are made. This is used when employees are able to analyze the situation and determine what needs to be done and how to do it. You cannot do everything You must set pr iorities and delegate certain tasks. This is an effective style to use when Employees are highly skilled, experienced, and educated. Employees have pride in their work and the drive to do it successfully on their own. Outside experts, such as staff specialists or consultants are being used.Employees are reliable and experienced. Varying Leadership Style While the proper leadership style depends on the situation, there are three other factors that also influence which leadership style to use. The managers personal background. What personality, knowledge, values, ethics, and experiences does the manager have? What does he or she think will work? The employees being supervised. Employees are individuals with different personalities and backgrounds. The leadership style managers use will vary depending upon the individual employee and what he or she will respond best to. The company.The traditions, values, philosophy, and concerns of the company will influence how a manager acts. at t hat place are a lot of arguments for and against each of the effective leadership styles. For example, the followers of an authoritarian leader are more prone to having low motivation and morale. They may find it difficult to get inspired because the leader is more impersonal, task oriented, demanding, and not considerate of their opinions. However despite this, there are situations where an authoritarian leadership style is the most effective. Such as when time is short, when the leader has all the information and a quick decision is needed.Anything other than an authoritarian leader will result in poorer outcomes. Theories of Leadership People have been interested in leadership since they have started coming unitedly in groups to accomplish goals. However, it wasnt until the early part of the twentieth degree centigrade that researchers usually began to study it. These early leadership theories focused on the leader (trait theories) and how the leader interacted with his or her group members (behavioral theories) while subsequent theories looked at other variables such as situational factors and skill level.While many different leadership theories have emerged, most can be classified as one of eight major types Great Man Theory Early research on leadership was based on the study of people who were already great leaders. These people were often from the aristocracy, as few from lower classes had the fortune to lead. This contributed to the notion that leadership had something to do with breeding. The idea of the Great Man also strayed into the mythic domain, with notions that in times of need, a Great Man would arise, almost by magic.This was easy to verify, by pointing to people such as Eisenhower and Churchill. The term Great Man was used because, at the time, leadership was thought of in the first place as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership. Trait theory In searching for measurable leadership traits, researchers have taken two a pproaches Comparing the traits of those who have emerged as leaders with the traits who have not and Comparing the traits of effective leaders with those of ineffective leaders.Early research on leadership was based on the psychological focus of the day, which was of people having inherited characteristics or traits. Attention was thus put on discovering these traits, often by studying successful leaders, but with the underlying assumption that if other people could also be found with these traits, then they, too, could also become great leaders. Trait theories often identify particular personality or behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. But if particular traits are name features of leadership, how do we explain people who possess those qualities but are not leaders?This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to explain leadership. Behavioral theory When it became evident that effective leaders did not wait to have a particular set of distinguishing t raits, researchers tried to isolate the behavior characteristics of effective leaders. In other words, rather than try to figure out who effective leaders are, researchers tried to determine what effective leaders do i. e. how they delegate tasks, how they communicate with and try to motivate their followers or employees and so on.Behaviors, unlike traits, can be learned, so it is followed that individuals trained in appropriate leadership behaviors would be able to lead more effectively. Participative theory A Participative Leader, rather than taking autocratic decisions, seeks to involve other people in the process, possibly including subordinates, peers, superiors and other stakeholders. Often, however, as it is within the managers whim to give or deny control to his or her subordinates, most participative activity is within the immediate team.These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group members and help group members savor more relevant and committed to th e decision-making process. In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of others. The level of participation may also depend on the type of decision being made. Decisions on how to implement goals may be highly participative, whilst decisions during subordinate performance evaluations are more likely to be taken by the manager.Contingency theory Contingency theories are a class of behavioral theory that contends that there is no one best way of leading and that a leadership style that is effective in some situations may not be successful in others. Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment that efficacy determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations. achievement depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership style, qualities of the followers, and aspects of the situation.Thi s theory focuses on the following factors depute requirement. Peers expectations and behavior. Employees characteristics, expectations and behavior. Organizational culture and policies. Situational theory One of the major contingency approaches to leadership is Paul Hersey and Kenneth H. Blanchards situational leadership model which holds that the most effective leadership style varies with the readiness of employees. When a decision is needed, an effective leader does not just fall into a single preferable style, such as using transactional or transformational ethods. In practice, as they say, things are not that simple. Factors that affect situational decisions include motivation and capability of followers. This, in turn, is impact by factors within the particular situation. The relationship between followers and the leader may be another factor that affects leader behavior as much as it does follower behavior. The leaders perception of the follower and the situation will affe ct what they do rather than the truth of the situation.The leaders perception of themselves and other factors such as stress and mood will also modify the leaders behavior. Transformational or Charismatic theory Working for a Transformational Leader can be a wonderful and uplifting experience. They put passion and energy into everything. They sustenance about you and want you to succeed. One area of growing interest is the study of individuals who have an exceptional impact on their organizations. These individuals may be called magnetised or transformational leaders.First, many large companies including IBM, GM etc have embarked on organizational transformations programs of extensive changes that must be accomplished in short periods of time. Basss theory of transformational leadership Bass defined transformational leadership in terms of how the leader affects followers, who are intended to trust, admire and respect the transformational leader. He identified three ways in which l eaders transform followers Increasing their awareness of task importance and value. Getting them to focus first on team or organizational goals, rather than their own interests. trigger their higher-order needs. Bass has recently noted that authentic transformational leadership is grounded in moral foundations that are based on four components Idealized influence sacred motivation Intellectual stimulation Individualized consideration Transactional or Management theory Management theories (also known as Transactional theories) focus on the role of supervision, organization, and group performance. These theories base leadership on a system of reward and punishment. Managerial theories are often used in business when employees are successful, they are ewarded when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished. The early stage of Transactional Leadership is in negotiating the contract whereby the subordinate is given a salary and other benefits, and the company gets authority over the su bordinate. When the Transactional Leader allocates work to a subordinate, they are considered to be fully responsible for it, whether or not they have the resources or capability to carry it out. When things go wrong, then the subordinate is considered to be personally at fault, and is punished for their failure (just as they are rewarded for succeeding).Leadership StyleFinding a role model to evaluate his or her style of leadership and identifying ones own characteristics as a leader are he starting point for creating a personal development plan to work toward becoming the type of leader one wishes to be. Mary Kay Ash According to Hulk, transformational leaders, seek to raise the consciousness of followers by appealing to ideals and moral values such as liberty, justice, equality, peace, and humanitarianism, not to baser emotions such as fear, greed, jealousy, or hatred (2013, p. 347). Mary Kay Ash was a transformational leader.During a time period where women were not viewed as eq ual to men, she started a new business that empowered women. Not only did she build a business for women, she established a likeable foundation to support cancer research and later expanded its purpose to fighting violence against women (celebrating Mary Kay Ash, n. D. ). It would take a huge amount of courage, confidence, and drive to accomplish the things she was able to. To have this type of impact on such a large group of people even would provide a person with an enormous sense of accomplishment.Strengths of Self Qualities necessary to be a positive leader that are possessed by the author include respectful, good communicator, resourceful, rewarding, an openness to change, organized, delegated, takes initiative, listens to and responds to feedback as well as provides constructive feedback to others (University of Oregon, 2009). Treating others with respect will lead to them giving respect. Communicating is an essential function of leading. The leader must be able to share the goal and vision as well as provide direction. People also have a need to be heard, so it is important for a leader to listen to others and their ideas.Weaknesses Of Self Qualities that may hold a person from reaching his or her goal of being a transformational leader are being task oriented instead of people oriented. A transformational leader changes the lives of others and this is harder to accomplish if the main focus is the task not the person. A need to control has its strong points as well as its weaknesses. It is important to know when to allow others to take control. Characteristics that are Transformational To become this type of leader would not only transform the lives of others but of the author as a leader herself.Being a motivational leader is a positive starting point in working toward becoming a transformational leader. Knowing ones abilities is important but constantly striving to improve learning to do more and better can inspire others that they can do the same. S eeing an organized leader who thrives under pressure, using planning as a tool to succeed will show others they are capable of overcoming their stress and do better. The most important quality a person needs to become a transformational leader is a belief in and desire to developing others both personally and professional.Development Plan Having a mentor is an excellent way to identify a persons qualities as a leader and develop a plan that will help that person become the leader he or she desires to be. Working toward becoming a transformational leader is an enormous goal. The first step in reaching this goal is identifying the needs of others and how they are motivated. Then setting personal goals that work toward the development into a transformational leader. It is important to begin with smaller goals, such as encouraging coworkers to do more and do better.If they take pride in their work and their job it will reflect in the equines. By setting smaller, reachable goals a person will be encouraged and inspired to continue to work and reach the final goal. Conclusion Being in a position to empower, motivate, and uplift women is only part of what it would take to be a transformational leader. Taking action and taking charge of her life and future is what Mary Kay Ash did, and showed other women they could do it as well. To change a persons leadership style it is necessary to identify that persons characteristics as a leader.Leadership StyleDefinition of Leadership A leader is someone who can influence others and who has a managerial authority. Leadership is what leaders do. More specifically, its the process of influencing a group to achieve goals. Group Leadership Leadership is concerned with control and power in a group. Leadership can be aimed at either maintaining the interpersonal relationships in the group or prodding the group to achieve its task. Kinds of Leadership Groups typically benefit from two kinds of leadership i. e. Instrumental leadership E xpressive leadership Instrumental LeadershipThis kind of leadership refers to group leadership that focuses on the completion of tasks. Members look to instrumental leadership to make plans, give orders and get things done. Characteristics of instrumental leadership Instrumental leaders usually have formal, secondary relations with other group members. They give orders and rewards and punish members according to their contribution to the groups efforts. Enjoy more respect from members when successful. Their main goal is completion of task. Expressive Leadership Expressive leadership is a group leadership that focuses on the groups well being.Example the democratic style of leadership is an example of expressive leadership. Characteristics of Expressive leadership Expressive leaders take less interest in achieving goals than in promoting the well-being of members, raising group morale and minimizing tensions and conflicts among the group members. Expressive leaders build more persona l and primary ties. They show sympathy to their group members. They generally receive more personal affection. Leadership Styles Definition Leadership styles refer to the various patterns of behavior favored by leaders during the process of directing and influencing workers.Sociologists describe leadership in terms of decision making styles. The three major types of leadership are the following Authoritarian or autocratic leadership. Democratic or Participative leadership. Laissez-faire leadership. Although good leaders use all three styles, with one of them normally dominant, bad leaders tend to stick with one style. In the past several decades, management experts have undergone a revolution in how they define leadership and what their attitudes are toward it. They have gone from a very classical autocratic approach to a very creative, participative approach.Somewhere along the line, it was determined that not everything old was bad and not everything new was good. Rather, differen t styles were needed for different situations and each leader needed to know when to exhibit a particular approach. Authoritarian Leadership This is often considered the classical approach. It is one in which the manager retains as much power and decision-making authority as possible. The manager does not consult employees, nor are they allowed to give any input. Employees are expected to obey orders without receiving any explanations.The motivation environment is produced by creating a structured set of rewards and punishments. This style is used when leaders tell their employees what they want done and how they want it accomplished, without getting the advice of their followers. Some of the appropriate conditions to use it are when you have all the information to solve the problem, you are short on time, and your employees are well motivated. This leadership style has been greatly criticized during the past 30 years. Some studies say that organizations with many autocratic leaders have higher turnover and absenteeism than other organizations.These studies say that autocratic leaders Rely on threats and punishment to influence employees. Do not allow for employee input. Autocratic leadership is not all bad. Sometimes it is the most effective style to use. These situations can include New, untrained employees who do not know which tasks to perform or which procedures to follow. Effective supervision can be provided only through detailed orders and instructions. A managers power is challenged by an employee. Democratic or Participative leadershipThe democratic leadership style is also called the participative style as it encourages employees to be a part of the decision making. The democratic manager keeps his or her employees informed about everything that affects their work and shares decision making and problem solving responsibilities. This style requires the leader to be a coach who has the final say, but gathers information from staff members before makin g a decision. Democratic leadership can produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time. Many employees like the trust they receive and respond with cooperation, team spirit, and high morale.Typically the democratic leader Develops plans to help employees evaluate their own performance. Encourages employees to grow on the job and be promoted. Recognizes and encourages achievement. Like the other styles, the democratic style is not always appropriate. It is most successful when used with highly skilled or experienced employees or when implementing operational changes or resolving individual or group problems. This is normally used when you have part of the information, and your employees have other parts. Note that a leader is not expected to know everything this is why you employ knowledgeable and skillful employees.Using this style is of mutual benefit it allows them to become part of the team and allows you to make better decisions. Laissez-faire leadership Laissez faire is a French word meaning noninterference in the affairs of others. Laissez means to let, allow and faire means to do. The laissez-faire leadership style is also known as the hands-off? style. It is one in which the manager provides little or no direction and gives employees as much freedom as possible. All authority or power is given to the employees and they must determine goals, make decisions, and resolve problems on their own.In this style, the leader allows the employees to make the decisions. However, the leader is still responsible for the decisions that are made. This is used when employees are able to analyze the situation and determine what needs to be done and how to do it. You cannot do everything You must set priorities and delegate certain tasks. This is an effective style to use when Employees are highly skilled, experienced, and educated. Employees have pride in their work and the drive to do it successfully on their own. Outside experts, such as staff specialists or consultants are being used.Employees are trustworthy and experienced. Varying Leadership Style While the proper leadership style depends on the situation, there are three other factors that also influence which leadership style to use. The managers personal background. What personality, knowledge, values, ethics, and experiences does the manager have? What does he or she think will work? The employees being supervised. Employees are individuals with different personalities and backgrounds. The leadership style managers use will vary depending upon the individual employee and what he or she will respond best to. The company.The traditions, values, philosophy, and concerns of the company will influence how a manager acts. There are a lot of arguments for and against each of the effective leadership styles. For example, the followers of an authoritarian leader are more prone to having low motivation and morale. They may find it difficult to get inspired because the leade r is more impersonal, task oriented, demanding, and not considerate of their opinions. However despite this, there are situations where an authoritarian leadership style is the most effective. Such as when time is short, when the leader has all the information and a quick decision is needed.Anything other than an authoritarian leader will result in poorer outcomes. Theories of Leadership People have been interested in leadership since they have started coming together in groups to accomplish goals. However, it wasnt until the early part of the twentieth century that researchers usually began to study it. These early leadership theories focused on the leader (trait theories) and how the leader interacted with his or her group members (behavioral theories) while subsequent theories looked at other variables such as situational factors and skill level.While many different leadership theories have emerged, most can be classified as one of eight major types Great Man Theory Early researc h on leadership was based on the study of people who were already great leaders. These people were often from the aristocracy, as few from lower classes had the opportunity to lead. This contributed to the notion that leadership had something to do with breeding. The idea of the Great Man also strayed into the mythic domain, with notions that in times of need, a Great Man would arise, almost by magic.This was easy to verify, by pointing to people such as Eisenhower and Churchill. The term Great Man was used because, at the time, leadership was thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership. Trait theory In searching for measurable leadership traits, researchers have taken two approaches Comparing the traits of those who have emerged as leaders with the traits who have not and Comparing the traits of effective leaders with those of ineffective leaders.Early research on leadership was based on the psychological focus of the day, which was of people having inherited characteristics or traits. Attention was thus put on discovering these traits, often by studying successful leaders, but with the underlying assumption that if other people could also be found with these traits, then they, too, could also become great leaders. Trait theories often identify particular personality or behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. But if particular traits are key features of leadership, how do we explain people who possess those qualities but are not leaders?This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to explain leadership. Behavioral theory When it became evident that effective leaders did not seem to have a particular set of distinguishing traits, researchers tried to isolate the behavior characteristics of effective leaders. In other words, rather than try to figure out who effective leaders are, researchers tried to determine what effective leaders do i. e. how they delegate tasks, how they communicate with and try to motivate their followers or employees and so on.Behaviors, unlike traits, can be learned, so it is followed that individuals trained in appropriate leadership behaviors would be able to lead more effectively. Participative theory A Participative Leader, rather than taking autocratic decisions, seeks to involve other people in the process, possibly including subordinates, peers, superiors and other stakeholders. Often, however, as it is within the managers whim to give or deny control to his or her subordinates, most participative activity is within the immediate team.These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group members and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-making process. In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of others. The level of participation may also depend on the type of decision being made. Decisions on how to implement goals may be highly participative, whilst decisio ns during subordinate performance evaluations are more likely to be taken by the manager.Contingency theory Contingency theories are a class of behavioral theory that contends that there is no one best way of leading and that a leadership style that is effective in some situations may not be successful in others. Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations. Success depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership style, qualities of the followers, and aspects of the situation.This theory focuses on the following factors Task requirement. Peers expectations and behavior. Employees characteristics, expectations and behavior. Organizational culture and policies. Situational theory One of the major contingency approaches to leadership is Paul Hersey and Kenneth H. Bl anchards situational leadership model which holds that the most effective leadership style varies with the readiness of employees. When a decision is needed, an effective leader does not just fall into a single preferred style, such as using transactional or transformational ethods. In practice, as they say, things are not that simple. Factors that affect situational decisions include motivation and capability of followers. This, in turn, is affected by factors within the particular situation. The relationship between followers and the leader may be another factor that affects leader behavior as much as it does follower behavior. The leaders perception of the follower and the situation will affect what they do rather than the truth of the situation.The leaders perception of themselves and other factors such as stress and mood will also modify the leaders behavior. Transformational or Charismatic theory Working for a Transformational Leader can be a wonderful and uplifting experience . They put passion and energy into everything. They care about you and want you to succeed. One area of growing interest is the study of individuals who have an exceptional impact on their organizations. These individuals may be called charismatic or transformational leaders.First, many large companies including IBM, GM etc have embarked on organizational transformations programs of extensive changes that must be accomplished in short periods of time. Basss theory of transformational leadership Bass defined transformational leadership in terms of how the leader affects followers, who are intended to trust, admire and respect the transformational leader. He identified three ways in which leaders transform followers Increasing their awareness of task importance and value. Getting them to focus first on team or organizational goals, rather than their own interests.Activating their higher-order needs. Bass has recently noted that authentic transformational leadership is grounded in mora l foundations that are based on four components Idealized influence Inspirational motivation Intellectual stimulation Individualized consideration Transactional or Management theory Management theories (also known as Transactional theories) focus on the role of supervision, organization, and group performance. These theories base leadership on a system of reward and punishment. Managerial theories are often used in business when employees are successful, they are ewarded when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished. The early stage of Transactional Leadership is in negotiating the contract whereby the subordinate is given a salary and other benefits, and the company gets authority over the subordinate. When the Transactional Leader allocates work to a subordinate, they are considered to be fully responsible for it, whether or not they have the resources or capability to carry it out. When things go wrong, then the subordinate is considered to be personally at fault, and is punis hed for their failure (just as they are rewarded for succeeding).

Abnormal Psychology Study Guide

Chapter 16 temper disturblinesss Slides, handouts, and answers lynchpins created by K atomic issue forth 18n Clay Rhines, Ph. D. , Seton H exclusively University vent 2 What is Psychological Abnormality? What is genius? temperament is a unique and long-term pattern of inner association and outward-bound deportment constitution tends to be consistent and is oft set forth in terms of traits These traits whitethorn be inherited, learned, or both reputation is to a fault flexible, allowing us to adapt to new environments For those with spirit deflects, however, that flexibility is commonly missing acquittance 3 reputation disquietsWhat is a temper unhinge? A very rigid pattern of inner experience and outward behavior This pattern is seen in intimately interactions, differs from the experiences and behaviors usually expected, and continues for days dismission 4 Classifying nature Disorders A temper b new(prenominal) is diagnosed only when it causes impairmen ts in amicable or occupational functioning, or when it causes personal distress constitution disobliges typically become recognizable in adolescence or early matureness . Generally, the chance wizd person does not regard his or her behavior as undesirable or occupationaticIt has been estimated that 9 to 13% of all adults may realise a nature perturb freeing 5 Classifying disposition Disorders Classifying these disobliges is contest because little is known intimately their origins or development They atomic number 18 diagnosed on axis II of the DSM-IV outlet 6 Classifying Personality Disorders Those diagnosed with personality derangements are often also diagnosed with an Axis I put out This relationship is called comorbidity Axis II bothers my predispose stack to develop an Axis I rowdiness, or Axis I maladys may set the spot for Axis II bothers, or any(prenominal) biological condition may set the stage for bothWhatever the reason, research indicates tha t the presence of a personality disarray complicates and reduces a persons chances for a successful recovery Handout 8 Classifying Personality Disorders The various personality ailments overlap each separate so much that it skunk be difficult to distinguish mavin from another The frequent lack of agreement betwixt clinicians and diagnosticians has raised concerns about the validity and reliability of these categories Handout 10 Odd Personality Disorders stack with these unhealthinesss display behaviors similar to, notwithstanding not as extensive as, schizophreniaBehaviors embroil extreme suspiciousness, friendly withdrawal, and peculiar ways of thinking and perceiving things Such behaviors head the person isolated nearly clinicians reckon that these disorders are genuinely think to schizophrenia, and thus call them schizophrenia spectrum disorders Handout 11 Odd Personality Disorders Clinicians yield learned much about the symptoms of odd personality disorders but little about effective treatment for these disorders In fact, battalion with these disorders seldom seek treatment Handout 14 How Do Theorists apologize paranoiac Personality Disorder?The proposed explanations of this disorder, like those of most other personality disorders, subscribe authoritative little systematic research Psychodynamic theorists trace the pattern spinal column to early interactions with demanding parents cognitive theorists suggest that maladaptive effronterys such as tribe are evil and will attack you if given the chance are to blame Biological theorists propose genetic causes and stupefy looked at equal studies to yield this model Handout 15 Treatments for Paranoid Personality Disorder wad with paranoid personality disorder do not typically see themselves as needing helpFew come to treatment willingly Those who are in treatment often distrust and rebel against their therapists As a result, therapy for this disorder, as for most of the other personal ity disorders, has limited effect and moves slowly Handout 16 Treatments for Paranoid Personality Disorder Object relations therapists pass judgment to see prehistoric the patients wrath and work on the underlying wish for a satisfying relationship Behavioral and cognitive therapists try to help clients control fretfulness and improve interpersonal skills cognitive therapists also try to restructure clients maladaptive assumptions and interpretationsDrug therapy is mainly ineffective Handout 17 Schizoid Personality Disorder This disorder is characterized by persistent avoidance of social relationships and limited emotional demeanor Withdrawn and reclusive, volume with this disorder are not interest in relationships with others People with schizoid personality disorder focus mainly on themselves and are often seen as flat and c over-the-hill The disorder is estimated to affect less than 1% of the population It is slightly more(prenominal) likely to extend in men than in wom en Handout 22 Schizotypal Personality DisorderThis disorder is characterized by odd (even bizarre) ways of thinking and perceiving, and behavioral eccentricities These symptoms may take on ideas of reference and/or bodily illusions People with the disorder often bring swell difficulty keeping their attention focused conversation is typically digressive and vague Handout 23 Schizotypal Personality Disorder socially withdrawn, concourse with this disorder seek isolation and take for few friends This disorder is the most severe of the three in this cluster It has been estimated that 2 to 4% of all pile (slightly more males than females) may shoot the disorderHandout 24 How Do Theorists rationalise Schizotypal Personality Disorder? Because the symptoms of schizotypal personality disorder so often resemble those of schizophrenia, researchers impart hypothesized that similar factors are at work in both disorders Schizotypal symptoms are often railroad tieed to poor family commun ication and to psychological disorders in parents Researchers have also begun to link schizotypal personality disorder to some of the same(p) biological factors plant in schizophrenia The disorder also has been linked to mood disorders Handout 27 Dramatic Personality DisordersThe behaviors of people with these disorders are so dramatic, emotional, or erratic that it is almost impossible for them to have relationships that are truly giving and satisfying These personality disorders are more commonly diagnosed than the others Only antisocial and borderline personality disorders have received much study The causes of the disorders are not well understood Handout 28 Antisocial Personality Disorder Sometimes described as psychopaths or sociopaths, people with antisocial personality disorder persistently dismiss and violate others rightsAside from centre-related disorders, this is the disorder most linked to adult criminal behavior The DSM-IV requires that a person be at least 18 years of age to receive this diagnosis Most people with an antisocial personality disorder displayed some patterns of misbehavior before they were 15 years old Handout 30 Antisocial Personality Disorder Surveys indicate that up to 3. 5% of people in the U. S. meet the criteria for this disorder Caucasians are middling more likely to be diagnosed than are African AmericansThe disorder is quatern times more common in men than women Because people with this disorder are often arrested, researchers frequently look for people with antisocial patterns in prison populations Studies also indicate higher(prenominal) rates of alcoholism and other substance-related disorders among this group Handout 33 How Do Theorists Explain Antisocial Personality Disorder? The cognitive view says that people with the disorder hold attitudes that trivialize the importance of other peoples needs A number of studies suggest that biological factors may play a roleFindings suggest that people with antisocial person ality disorder have lower levels of trait anxiety and arousal, leading them to be more likely than others to take risks and seek thrills Handout 34 Treatments for Antisocial Personality Disorder About 25% of all people with antisocial personality disorder receive treatment for it, til now no treatment appears to be effective A major problem is the individuals lack of conscience or desire to limiting Most have been mandated to treatment Some cognitive therapists try to transcend clients to think about moral issues and the needs of other peopleHospitals have move to create therapeutic communities Generally, most of todays treatment approaches have little to no impact on the disorder Handout 35 margin Personality Disorder People with this disorder display great instability, including major shifts in mood, an coseismal self-image, and impulsivity Interpersonal relationships also are unstable People with borderline personality disorder are prone to bouts of anger, which sometimes r esult in physical aggression and violence Just as often, however, they direct their impulsive anger inward and harm themselvesHandout 37 Borderline Personality Disorder Almost 2% of the general population are thought to suffer from this disorder Close to 75% of those diagnosed are women The fall of the disorder varies In the most common pattern, the instability and risk of felo-de-se reach a peak during young adulthood and then in stages lessen with advancing age Handout 39 How Do Theorists Explain Borderline Personality Disorder? Some haves of the disorder also have been linked to biological abnormalities Sufferers who are particularly impulsive apparently have lower brain serotonin activityClose relatives of those with borderline personality disorder are five times more likely than the general population to have the disorder Some sociocultural theorists suggest that cases of borderline personality disorder are particularly likely to emerge in finales that change chop-chop Ha ndout 40 Treatments for Borderline Personality Disorder It appears that psychotherapy can eventually lead to some degree of improvement for people with this disorder It is not easy, though, for a therapist to strike a balance between empathizing with a patients dependency and anger and challenging his or her way of thinkingFurthermore, termination of therapy is often incredibly difficult Handout 42 Treatments for Borderline Personality Disorder Antidepressant, antibipolar, antianxiety, and antipsychotic drugs have helped some individuals to tranquilize their emotional and aggressive storms Given the high risk of suicide attempts by these patients, their use of drugs on an outpatient basis is controversial Some patients have benefited from a combination of drug therapy and psychotherapy Handout 43 histrionic Personality DisorderPeople with histrionic personality disorder are extremely emotional and continually seek to be the center of attention They often engage in attention-gettin g behaviors Approval and praise are the lifeblood of these individuals People with histrionic personality disorder are often described as vain, self-centered, and demanding Some create suicide attempts, often to manipulate others Handout 44 Histrionic Personality Disorder This disorder was once believed to be more common in women than in men However, research has revealed gender bias in past diagnosesThe latest statistics suggest that around 2% percent of adults have this personality disorder, with males and females equally affected Handout 46 How Do Theorists Explain Histrionic Personality Disorder? Cognitive theorists look at the lack of substance and the extreme suggestibility seen in people with the disorder Some propose that people with histrionic personality disorder hold a general assumption that they are helpless to care for themselves Sociocultural theorists believe the disorder is caused in part by bon tons norms and expectationsThe vain, dramatic, and selfish behavior ma y be an exaggeration of femininity as defined by our culture Handout 47 Treatments for Histrionic Personality Disorder Unlike people with most other personality disorders, those with histrionic personality disorder often seek treatment on their own Working with them can be difficult because of their demands, tantrums, seductiveness, and attempts to please the therapist Handout 49 self-conceited Personality Disorder People with narcissistic personality disorder are largely grandiose, need much admiration, and feel no empathy for othersConvinced of their own great success, power, or beauty, they expect constant attention and admiration from those around them People with this disorder exaggerate their achievements and talents, and often appear arrogant Handout 50 Narcissistic Personality Disorder People with this disorder are seldom interested in the feelings of others Many take advantage of others to achieve their own ends plausibly less than 1% of adults display narcissistic perso nality disorder Up to 75% of these are men This type of behavior is common among teenagers and do not usually lead to adult narcissismHandout 51 How Do Theorists Explain Narcissistic Personality Disorder? Psychodynamic theorists more than others have theorized about this disorder, direction on cold, rejecting parents Object-relations theorists interpret the grandiose self-presentation as a way for these people to convince themselves that they are self-sufficient and without need of warm relationships In support of this theory, research has found increased risk for developing the disorder among ill-treat children and those from divorced families Handout 52 How Do Theorists Explain Narcissistic Personality Disorder?Behavioral and cognitive theorists propose that narcissistic personality disorder may develop when people are treated too positively rather than too negatively in early life Those with the disorder have been taught to overvalue their self-worth In support of this explanati on, first-born and only children score higher on measures of narcissism Finally, many sociocultural theorists see a link between narcissistic personality disorder and eras of narcissism in society Handout 53 Treatments for Narcissistic Personality Disorder This disorder is one of the most difficult personality patterns to treatClients who consult therapists usually do so because of a related disorder, most commonly depression Once in treatment, the individuals may try to manipulate the therapist into supporting their sense of superiority None of the major treatment approaches has had much success Handout 55 Anxious Personality Disorders People with these disorders typically display anxious and appalling behavior Although many of the symptoms are similar to those of anxiety and depressive disorders, researchers have found no links between this cluster and those Axis I diagnoses As with most of the personality disorders, research is limitedBut treatments for this cluster appear to be lower-rankingly to moderately accommodative Handout 56 Avoidant Personality Disorder People with avoidant personality disorder are very uncomfortable and restrained in social situations, overwhelmed by feelings of inadequacy, and extremely sensitive to negative evaluation They believe themselves unappealing or inferior and often have few obstruct friends Handout 57 Avoidant Personality Disorder The disorder is similar to social phobia, and many people with one disorder experience the other Similarities between the two disorders include a few of humiliation and low self-confidenceA key difference is that people with social phobia mainly fear social circumstances, while people with avoidant personality disorder tend to fear windup social relationships Between 1 and 2% of adults have avoidant personality disorder Handout 60 How Do Theorists Explain Avoidant Personality Disorder? Cognitive theorists believe that harsh criticism and rejection in early childhood may lead people to as sume that others will always judge them gratingly In several studies, individuals reported memories that supported both the psychodynamic and cognitive theoriesHandout 61 Treatments for Avoidant Personality Disorder People with avoidant personality disorder come to therapy want acceptance and affection Keeping them in therapy can be challenging because they often begin to avoid sessions A key task of the therapist is to build trust Beyond building trust, therapists tend to treat the disorder as they treat social phobia and anxiety These treatments have had modest success Group and drug therapy may also be effectual Handout 62 Dependent Personality Disorder People with parasitic personality disorder have a pervasive, excessive need to be taken care ofAs a result, they are clinging and obedient, fearing separation from their loved ones They bank on others so much that they cannot make the smallest decision for themselves The central feature of the disorder is a difficulty with se paration Handout 65 How Do Theorists Explain Dependent Personality Disorder? Behaviorists propose that parents of those with dependent personality disorder unintentionally rewarded their childrens clinging and loyal behavior while sullen acts of independence Alternatively, some parents own dependent behaviors may have served as models for their childrenHandout 68 Treatments for Dependent Personality Disorder Treatment can be at least modestly helpful Psychodynamic therapy focuses on many of the same issues as therapy for people with depression Cognitive therapists try to help clients argufy and change their assumptions of incompetence and helplessness Antidepressant drug therapy has been helpful for those whose disorder is accompanied by depression Group therapy can be helpful because it provides clients an opportunity to receive support from a number of peers and because group members may serve as models for one anotherHandout 70 psychoneurotic Personality Disorder Between 2 and 5% of the population has this disorder, with white, educated, married, and employed individuals receiving the diagnosis most often Men are twice as likely as women to display the disorder Many clinicians believe that obsessive-compulsive personality disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder (the anxiety disorder) are closely related time the disorders share similar symptoms, researchers have not found a circumstantial link between them Handout 72 How Do Theorists Explain Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder?Freudian theorists suggest that people with obsessive-compulsive personality disorder are anal regressive Because of overly harsh canful training, people become angry and remain fixated at this stage of psychosexual development To keep their anger under control, they resist both their anger and their instincts to have bowel movements As a result, they become extremely dapper and restrained Handout 77 What Problems Are Posed by the DSM Categories? Some of the diagnostic criteria cannot be observed directly The diagnoses often rely heavily on the impressions of the individual clinicianSimilarly, clinicians differ widely in their judgments about when a normal personality style crosses the line and deserves to be called a disorder Handout 79 What Problems Are Posed by the DSM Categories? Because of these problems, diagnosticians keep ever-changing the criteria used to assess the personality disorders Further, some theorists believe that the personality disorders actually differ more in degree than in type of dysfunction Some theorists have proposed that the disorders be organized by how severe authentic key traits are rather than by the presence or absence of specific traits