Organizational behaviour | Knowledge and power

Organizational behaviour acquaintance and causeABSTRACTMuch of the new-fangled sociological contestation on world effectiness revolves around the issue of the stir nature of magnate. A comprehensive account of causation has been discussed in the topic i.e actor of cognition, spot of m unmatch sufficienty and ability of accessible class and the ways in which these business leaders sewer be altered in the future. Much of this debate is related to the whole kit and boodle of the French philosopher Michel Foucault (1926-1984), who, following the Italian political philosopher Niccol Machiavelli (1469-1527), sees power as a complex strategic situation in a precondition society social setting. Being deeply structural, his objective involves both simplicity and enablementINTRODUCTIONPower is one of the most in-chief(postnominal) de lineinants of managerial efficientness. Bennis and nanus (1985) regarded it, as the basic energy needed to initiate and sustain actions . It is a factor without which, leaders nominate non lead. It provides the capacity to translate aims into documentaryity. Power is at the internality of managerial actions and leadership. It elicit be defined as the potential faculty to mildew behavior, to change the course of plane sots, to overcome resistance and to get throng do things that they would not separatewise do (Pfeffer, 1981)Balance of PowerBecause power operates both analogyally and reciprocally, sociologists speak of the balance of power between kick d experiencestairsies to a blood all parties to all descents ca-ca well-nigh power the sociological tryout of power concerns itself with discovering and describing the relative loudnesss jibe or unequal, stable or grammatical case to periodic change. Sociologists usually analyse relationships in which the parties deem relatively equal or nearly equal power in margins of unobtrusiveness rather than of power. Thus power has a connotation of unilat eralism. If this were not so, then(prenominal) all relationships could be described in terms of power, and its moment would be lost.Even in structuralist social opening, power appears as a process, an manifestation to an ongoing social structure. One passel sometimes distinguish primitive power the direct and prototypel use of force for compulsion and petty(a) power, which whitethorn involve the threat of force or social constraint, most likely involving third-party exercisers of delegated power.Etzioni (1961) talked about two kinds of power position power and portion/power Position power refers to mogul to induce or capture others behavior because of ones position in the fundamental law. French and Ravens (1959) legitimate power shag be considered position power. Employees obey the casts of those who charter chance variableal bureau or position powerTaking my position as the ticket adviser, I find that Ive several powers that be directed towards both seniors and subordinates. One of the powers is persona/ power. i e this is where individuals derive their power from their own skills and efforts. Persona/ power is the extent to which subordinates be leave aloneing to follow the leader. This personal power has broaden my affection, love, considerateness, encouragement, recognition and attachment. Bass, Wurster and Alcock (1961) found that deal want to be nurtured and regard mainly by those whom they value and respect. therefore plurality bestow such persons with personal power. It is thereof clear that personal power comes from below and layabout be invaden away much quickly by the subordinates as compargond to position power. French and Ravens Referent Power and serious power would image part of personal power.Other than the personal power, which calls for respect from the seniors, there is similarly the power of potency. This power is mostly directed to the subordinates in the office. It can be subdivided intoLine authorit y. This is the authorityover subordinates inmy chain of dominate. However this authority corresponds directly to the place within my chain of command and does not exist outside my chain of command i.e this power cannot be exercised beyond my department Staff authority. This is the undecomposedof staff to counsel, advice, or make recommendations to line personnel, and as a member of staff, I tone of voice this is one of the powers that I possess. This type of authority though doesnt give me the by rights to give line personnel orders that affect the mission of the line organizationThe managers, possess the power of authority and position power over their subordinates of which am one. Position power and authority have been interchangeably employ in the present times base on Etizionis findings. This is by applying various tactics, some of which argon Authority to sanction, i.e. some(prenominal) permission or approval that makes both course of action valid is under them. Therefo re any intention to misuse their power and an important idea seeking their approval results to waste. This important principle dictates what and when.a prize is to be made. Michener and Burt (1975) examined factors responsible for leadership success in eliciting compliance. They reported that compliance was greater when leaders explained that their demands as good for the group, had power to punish persons who did not comply to the leaders commands, and had a legitimate right to make demands on subordinates. Another study (Gamson, 1968) suggested that leaders would shift toward coercion of subordinates if they perceived that they lacked subordinates approval plainly did have the legitimate authority for postulation for complianceAuthority to Reward i. e having the final say in takingss pertaining to promotions, working is directed towards trying to appease the seniors, with a notion of weighed down work recognition that ordain lead to a promotion. This results to award of pr omotions without chastity considerations.Persuasiveness contributes validatoryly to powerfulness of managers while appeasement and doing favors to superiors contributes negatively to the same. aright managers perceive their subordinates behavior relatively more positively. Enforcing study, pressure for compliance, persuasiveness and authority to reward emerge then as important wreak strategies to harbour dysfunctional employee behaviors. Exchange of favors on the other hand seems to be uneffective influence strategy as it helps in thriving dysfunctional employee behavior. set about (granted or withheld, shared or kept secret)Knowledge can be expressed as expertise and skills acquired by a person done experience or education the theoretical or practical sagaciousness of a subject or what is known in a finicky field or in total facts and informationAs a sale consultant, Knowledge acquisition involves complex cognitive processes perception, learning, communication, associati on and reasoning. Knowledge as well as helps sale consultant in soul subject matter with the ability to use it for a specific declare oneself if appropriate.Situated association is knowledge specific to a particular situation. A sale consultant can use various methods of generating knowledge, such as trial and error, or learning from experience, tend to create highly situational knowledge. One of the main benefits of the scientific method is that the theories it furnishs are much less situational than knowledge gained by other methods.citation needed Situational knowledge is practically embedded in language, culture, or traditions.citation neededKnowledge generated done experience is called knowledge a posteriori, message afterwards. The pure existence of a term like a posteriori means this to a fault has a counterpart. In this case that is knowledge a priori, meaning before. The knowledge prior to any experience means that there are certain assumptions that one takes for gr anted. For fashion model if you are being told about a tame it is clear to you that the chair is in space, that it is 3D. This knowledge is not knowledge that one can forget, change surface someone suffering from amnesia experiences the world in 3D. See to a fault a priori and a posteriori.There is also partial knowledge. This whereby one discipline of epistemology focuses on partial knowledge. In most realistic cases, it is not possible to have an exhaustive understanding of an information domain, so then we have to live with the fact that our knowledge is always not complete, that is, partial. Most real problems have to be solved by taking advantage of a partial understanding of the problem context and problem entropy. That is very dissimilar from the typical simple maths problems one might solve at school, where all data is abandoned and one has a perfect understanding of formulas necessary to solve them.This idea is also present in the concept of bounded rationality which assumes that in real life situation pile often have a limited access of information and take closing accordingly.Another implication of knowledge is the scientific knowledge. The development of the scientific method has made a significant contribution to understanding of knowledge. Majoring on this concept of knowledge, a sale consultant has to be equipped with a method of inquiry which is based on gathering patent, empirical and measured evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning. The scientific method consists of the collection of data through observation and experimentation, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses. Science and the nature of scientific knowledge has also become the subject of Philosophy. As science itself has developed, knowledge has developed a broader usage which has been developing within biology/psychology-discussed elsewhere as meta-epistemology, or genetic epistemology, and to some extent related to theory of cognitive development.Power of Persuasion Persuasion is a form of social influence. It is the process of guiding people and oneself toward the adoption of an idea, attitude, or action by rational and symbolic (though not always logical) means.Persuasion methods are also sometimes referred to as persuasion tactics or persuasion strategies therefore as sale consultant, one need to be equipped with these methods for effective running of the organization. These methods includeReciprocity This is where by sale consultant tends to turn in a favor. This is in particular when one feels something good has been done and needs to notify the effort.Commitment and Consistency Once people commit to what they think is right, by word of mouth or in writing, they are more likely to honor that commitment, even if the original incentive or motivation is subsequently removed. For example, in railcar sales, suddenly raising the price at the last moment works because the buyer has already decided to buy. Social Proof This is where by people tend to do things that they see other people are doing. For example, in one experiment, one or more confederates would look up into the set up bystanders would then look up into the sky to see what they were seeing. Social value of unfamiliar people is ambiguous and requires a lot of effort to measure accurately. Given limited time and motivation, other people allow for often evaluate others based on how surrounding people behave towards them. For example, if a man is perceived to be in a company of personable women, or is associated with them, then his perceived social value and attractiveness will be perceived to be greater. The implied cognition in this case would be All those girls seem to really like him, there mustiness be something about him thats high value.If he is seen to be rejected by some(prenominal) an(prenominal) women, his social value will be judged negatively. The implied cognition is then I just saw him being rejected by many women, there i s probably a good reason why they dont like him. like state are easily persuaded by other people whom they like. People were more likely to buy if they liked the person selling it to them. whatsoever of the many biases favoring more attractive people are discussed, but broadly speaking more aesthetically pleasing people tend to use this influence excellently over others. Scarcity Perceived scarcity will generate demand. For example, saying offers are available for a limited time tho encourages sales. Propaganda is also closely related to Persuasion. Its a concerted set of messages aimed at influencing the opinions or behavior of large numbers of people. Instead of impartially providing information, propaganda in its most basic sense presents information in order to influence its audience. The most effective propaganda is often completely truthful, but some propaganda presents facts selectively to encourage a particular synthesis, or gives loaded messages in order to produce an emotional rather than rational response to the information presented. The sought after result is a change of the cognitive narrative of the subject in the design audience. The term propaganda first appeared in 1622 when Pope Gregory XV set up the Sacred Congregation for Propagating the Faith. Propaganda was then as now about convert large numbers of people about the veracity of a given set of ideas. Propaganda is as old as people, politics and religion.Sources of power can provide organizational members with a variety of means for enhancing their rice beers and smoothing over or creating organization conflict.. For example, some people derive power because they have been given authority by the organization to tell others what to do.Other people might have particular expertise or knowledge which the organization is dependent on, which gives them power.Some individuals might not have formal authority or expertise but might be very popular and thus have power through their own per sonal. The following are some of the sources Formal authority This is when one is the legitimate owner of an organization, is the chief executive officer, or the command manager, one can use this authority to make crucial decisions in an organization whether good or bad. Use of organizational structure, rules and regulations can change the scope of working in an organization.Ability to cope with uncertainty this hint makes one have an advantage over the rest of the members of an organization since one feels that the organization will depend on your idea once anything happens. social alliances, networks, and get word of informal organization if one is capable of uniting the blameless workforce, the seniors will hold you as a valuable asset which can be used in case of a conflict. The same is also true when maybe a manager possesses these traits over his/her subordinates .i.e. he/she can use them to convince the subordinates in case of a misunderstanding.Symbolism and the manage ment of meaning This is applicable to managers whose record of management is high and who lead by example. This makes the subordinates to fear and respect the senior.Some may also possess the power to control scarce resources,decision processes knowledge and information, boundaries, technology, counter organizations. With this power of control, the organizations development is persistent by how you use it.Sources of power depend upon mainly three abilities sound are reduce uncertainty, lack of substitutes and centrality of activities. Uncertainty resource control, information control, decision making control, substitutability, centrality and managing the boss.Since most of us work in socially abstruse organizations where we need the help not only of subordinates but of colleagues, superiors, and outsiders to accomplish our goals, its important for us to bridge the power gap so formed because we must depend on people over whom we have little or no explicit control. Hence all membe rs of an organization should use the social power relations that include, reward power, coercive power, legitimate power, reference power and expert powerIn reward power, the needs and wants of the people are put into consideration and their actions appreciated.In coercive power credible penalties are identified to deter unacceptable behavior and when done effectively rules and targets can be set.Reward and coercive power depend on the meanss ability to bestow on the clients positive and negative outcomes, respectively. Using either of these bases will induce only a superficial change in the client that is, none of the clients privately held beliefs, attitudes, or values are changed. Instead, only normal compliance is obtained, the continuation of which depends on successful surveillance of the client by the agent.In the legitimate power, formal power can be used to maintain it while for effectiveness politeness and sending of requests are applied. Its based on the targets belie f that the agent has a legitimate right to use influence, and that the target has an obligation to accept this influence. It leads to private bankers acceptance that comes from within the target and as such it does not require surveillance by the agent in order to be successful.To maintain reference power, managers should show acceptance and positive regards and for effectiveness, they should use personal appeals where necessary. It depends on the targets identifying with the agent. It leads to private acceptance by the target through enabling the target to maintain a able relationship with the agent and see himself/herself as similar to the target on certain relevant dimensions.To maintain expert power managers should earn more relevant knowledge and try to explain the needs and reasons for request of proposals. Expert power of the agent depends on the targets attributing superior knowledge or experience to the agent. When such faith in the agent is present, expert power will ag ain result in private acceptance on the part of the target. Contrary to the bases of power discussed above, informational is independent both of the person of the agent and of the agents relationship with the target, and is instead based on the perceived relevance and validity of the information. A related discussion of social influence processes in terms of compliance, identification, and incorporation is offered by Kelman (1956, 1961 Raven, 1974).Bosses should also use power ethically i.e. ethical power means using logical power in the favor of macrocosm which comes from managers characters. There are some processes that use ethical power in a firm or organization which are Reward power in ethical way should be used by managers as means to verify, compliance, make feasible and reasonable requests etc. Hence, all powers should be used ethically by all managers and all members of any organization.References1. Cervero, R., Wilson, A. (1994). cooking Responsibly for with baby bi rd(p) Education A Guide to Negotiating Power and Interests. San Francisco Jossey-Bass.2. Cervero, R. M., Wilson, A.L. (1998). on the job(p) the planning table The political practice of adult education. Studies in move Education, 20, 5-21.3. Drennon, C.E., Cervero, R.M. (2002). The politics of facilitation Negotiating power and politics in practitioner inquiry groups. Adult Education Quarterly, 52, 193-209. 4. Robbins Stephen P. (2003), Organizational Behavior (Tenth Edition), Prentice Hall of India Private Ltd.5. Aswathappa K. (1991), Organisational conduct Text, showcases and Games, Himalaya Publishing House.6. Singh Yogendra Pandey Mamta (2004), Organisational Behaviour, A.I.T.B.S. Publishers. 7. Fincham Robin Rhodes Peter (2005), Principles of Organisational Behaviours, Oxford Press. Health Benefits of Swimming Cultural Case StudyHealth Benefits of Swimming Cultural Case Study scratch AIn the assignment, I have intermeshed in my elect occupation which is swimming that I w ill be discussing in relation to meaning, form, purpose and performance components. Occupations are where individuals engage in activities that have meaning and purpose (World Federation of Occupational Therapists WFOT, 2011). The chosen occupation will be explored in relation to individual meaning and socio-cultural meaning of how this could differ in other situations for others. The case study of Jessica, aged eight years old, female and has moderate cerebral palsy CP will be discussed in relation to my chosen occupation. The findings will also discuss how Jessicas social-cultural and occupational dysfunction carry ons on her occupational participation especially using my occupation as a healing(p) application. Occupational dysfunction identifies any difficulties that clients may have when amiable or performing in occupations (Reed, 2015). healing(predicate) application defined as the healing(predicate) use of self-associating the link between relationship, efficacy and indi viduals involvement (Solman, Clouston, 2016). In addition, it will also explore whether Jessicas condition can have positive and negative effects on her health and well-being.Although tangible and built environments impact on what and how people do things, it is the cultural context through which people understand and ascribe meaning to what they do (Whiteford, 2010). Meaning is the entire interpretative experience engaged in by an individual encountering an occupational form (Kramer, Hinojosa, Royeen, 2003). Cutchin Dickie (2013) do specify that occupations are forms of action mechanism that create and run a multitude of our relationship with the worlds we experience. In addition, the result of engaging in occupations is vital to understanding the experience, social development and relates to well-being. Occupational form guides, structures, or suggests what is to be done by the person (Kramer, Hinojosa, Royeen, 2003 Nelson, 1994). Nelson (1988) stated that the form is obse rvable and objective, but it can change, for example completing an activity on your own and doing the activity with friends the form may have an impact on meaning. The purpose is what it is experienced once an individual has engaged in the occupation, it provides meaning and actor for the individual (Kramer, Hinojosa, Royeen, 2003).My chosen occupation was swimming which I have engaged in individually. I see swimming as a blank activity which means I engage in the activity in my free time within my own choice and it is fun (Poulsen, Ziviani, 2010). The meaning of engaging in swimming for me is that it provides exercise, reduces stress and time to myself. Nelson (1988) argued that the meaning may not positive, but the purpose gives a reason for engaging with a form.Culture provides scaffolding for informing and shaping an individuals perception of the different roles and behaviours that are important in the social group (Burke, 2003). As occupations are culturally placed, individ uals can be influenced by other causes, for example, choice, personal need, the level of skills and sexual urge expectations (Wilcock, Hocking, 2015).Performance components, for example, sensori- repulse, cognitive, psychosocial, and psychological aspects are the elements of performance that occupational healers assess and, when needed, in which they intervene for improving occupational performance (Duncan, 2011). Performance components that I have used in my occupation are a range of motion, strength and muscle tone within the neuromusculoskeletal category. Performance components refer to what the person is thinking, touch modality and doing, which leads to effective mesh topology in occupation (Strong, Gruhl, 2010).Section BIn relation to Jessicas background, she was born in the United Kingdom and the parents are Chinese. There are specific values and beliefs within their culture which impact on how an occupational therapist is able to gear a specific therapeutic program w ith the baby bird. The Chinese community do not like their child to socialise with other cultures, especially receiving intervention from professionals and although education is an exception. The Home personal matters Committee (1985, p.14) stated that The Chinese community is still fairly traditionalist in nature, wash uping well within its own created socio-economic subculture (Chau, 2013). The occupational therapist breaks down barriers and reassures parents. An occupational therapist creates an intervention when working with children, it is taken into consideration of the family and childs interests, including gaining an analysis of the childs behaviour and performance when engaging in occupations. It should be hold that the familys perspective may differ than the occupational therapists perception and to ensure what priorities are important to that particular child and family (Case-Smith, 2010). Jessica has moderate CP, she is quite an interactive child and has no language difficulties. Jessicas occupation dysfunction is that she does not often project school as she frequently loses her balance when walking and uses a stick occasionally as she has recollective term chronic pain. Jessicas sensual activity is minimal.Swimming will be used as a therapeutic application for Jessica to improve her general fitness levels, improve her tax revenue motor skills, for example, walking or running and the benefits of using swimming in the long term.At the beginning of the intervention for swimming, it is one to one basis to scram with to provide a person-centred ascend and focusing on improving Jessicas gross motor skills and her confidence. Long term goal for Jessica is that she will be able to incorporate swimming into her routine, including swimming at school with other children. This would amplify socialisation, makes swimming fun and whilst maintain fitness levels. Swimming as a fleshly activity for children with CP shows the benefits in improving chr onic pain and continue locomotor skills from deterioration in the long term (Declerck, Verheul, Daly, Sanders, 2016). It is agreed by Kelly, Darrah, (2005 p.69) that children with CP to improve fitness and function because of the properties of water, reduce excessive joint burden and promote strengthening while at the same time providing lifeer to help support children with decreased postural control and muscle weakness. However, taking into consideration that all individuals are unique and have their own needs, it is argued that vigilance should be focused on the childs health and well-being, especially accessibility of activity, pain, drudge and support network (Lauruschkus, Nordmark, Hallstrm, 2014 Whiteford Townsend, 2011). The World Health Organization WHO, (1948) defined heath as the state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Wellbeing is central to ones physical and mental health which includes quali ty of life and satisfaction (Bass, Baum, Christiansen, 2015). Long term goal for Jessica is that she will be able to return to school sufficient time and increment improvement with Jessicas walking, with support from her teachers and parents (Duncan, 2011). Jessica will gradually increase the duration of attendance from half a day to one exuberant day on a weekly basis, eventually, attendance will bounteous time. Jessicas walking progress will be monitored by the occupational therapist, family, and teachers. blank activities can be a creative therapeutic tool, or a targeted component of a holistic occupational performance plan (Polatajko, Davis, McEwen, 2015). It is native that children with CP should be encouraged at an early age to participate in physical activity (Zwier, van Schie, Becher, Smits, Gorter, Dallmeijer, 2010) as it is known that children with CP have even lower physical activity levels than their typically developing peers (Maltais, Wiart, Fowler, Verschuren, Damiano, 2014). Lack of physical activity has negative effects on health and wellbeing of children with CP especially an increased risk of health related conditions, such as obesity, diabetes, feeling and heart disease (Bania, Dodd, Taylor, 2010 National Institute for Health and Care faithfulness NICE, 2016). It may lead to potential barriers to enable participating in physical activity due to poor physical health and lack of support (Creek Lougher, 2011). There is evidence of therapeutic use is that positive leisure engagement can improve subjective well-being, including short-term mood enhancement and agelong lasting thoughts about life satisfaction in general. (Poulsen Ziviani, 2010). Furthermore, it is argued by Poulson Ziviani (2010) that choice and mastery are vital provision for a child to be satisfied with general life consequently allowing a child to lead a physical activity that they enjoy enables a long term satisfaction (Preston, 2009). According to Harris, Yui ll, Luckin, (2007) when an individual engages in activities that are meaningful, it may deliver a suitable level of challenge and interest which encourages mastery-oriented approach. When an individual has a long-term neurological condition, it may have an impact on the choice, control and potential abilities of the individual to engage in occupations which are meaningful (Stadnyk et al., 2010). Therapeutic knowledge is required in making decisions about leisure interest that match the childs abilities and interests and meet the familys needs and resources (Rodger, 2010).In conclusion, a holistic approach to working with individuals is paramount and knowledge about socio-cultural issues is required to understand many possible barriers. It is important that occupational therapists focus on the meaning than the purpose when individuals engage within an occupation. It is essential to allow individuals to have the control that allows them to be confident and capable to continue to enga ge in occupations independently, therefore helps them not to be reliant on others (Duncan, 2011 Crist, 2010). Wilcock, Hocking, (2015) argued that meaning, purpose, control and choice is fundamental for a quality of life, health, and well-being.